MORAN 'ETH'O - 9
Sebastian P. Brock:
1
A EF OUTLINE
OF
SYRIAC LITERATURE
ST. EPHREM ECUMENICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
BAKER HILL. KOTTAYAM - 686 001
INDIA
AUGUST 1997
FOREWORD
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF SYRIAC LITERATURE
By:
Sebastian Peter Brock
Moran 'Eth'6 - 9
First published:
August 1997
Published by:
St Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute
Baker Hill, Kottayam - 686 001
Kerala, India
Printed at:
Deepika Offset Printers,
Sastri Road, Kottayam - 1
The second, fourth and sixth numbers of MORAN ETHO
were from the erudite pen of the great Syriac scholar of Oxford,
Prof. Sebastian P.Brock. The present volume is one more most
welcome contribution by him. It gives an opportunity to the
English speaking world, to become aware of the immense wealth
of literature in the Syriac language. The contents include brief
biographies of Syriac authors, a list of their published and yet to
be published writings, as well as selections from some of these.
Thus, the interested scholar or student is enabled to have a glimpse
of the treasurers he can profit from.
The publication of this volume is at a most opportune time.
SEERI (St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute) has started
the M.A. course in Syriac language and literature under the
Mahatma Gandhi University at Kottayam, Kerala. The students
who have joined this course will find the present volume, most
useful.
Prof. Brock draws attention to a large volume of writings
in Syriac yet to be published. The scholars who do their re-
search for the Ph.D. in Syriac in the M.G.University can profit-
ably study such writings and make them available to the world at
large.
SEERI is very grateful to Prof. Brock for having entrusted
the publication of this work as another number of MORAN
ETHO. It is quite in consonance with his constant interest in the
activities and progress of this institution.
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This outlme of Syriac literature aims to provide no more thin
an initial orientation to the subject. The number S5
wntmgs covered has dehberately been limited to the mo, m P or
tant (or, in some cases, the more accessible); ftmhemior al Z ° h
x;£^K£? ° T ;r outi,ne f has been ° n tL
tions are largely pJtiction^V' r ^^ ** * eSe limita "
c 1 inn ,-c J / Synac lltei "ature of the period up to
crioOO s often ol particular significance and importance and ar
French tr TtT r tllus ET = English translation, FT =
Foreword
Preface Page
I. A Bird's Eye View: the Main Periods 7
n. Secular and Ecclesiastical Background..... 8
(a) Periods A-C (2nd-7th cent.) 8
(b) Periods D-F (7th-20th cent.) 10
III. The Six Main Periods 13
A. lst-3rd centuries 13
B. 4th century 19
C. 5th to mid 7th century 30
(a) 5th cent. 30
(b) 5th/6th cent. 37
(c) 6th cent 42
(d) 6th/7th cent. 48
D. Mid 7th to end 13th century 53
(a) second half 7th cent. 53
(b) 7th/8thcent. 57
(c) 8th cent. 60
(d) 8th/9th cent 63
(e) 9th cent. 65
if) 10th cent 70
(g) 11th cent.... 71
(h) 12th cent 72
(i) 13th cent. 73
IV.
V.
VI.
vn.
vin.
E. 14th to 19th century 82
F. 20th century 83
Appendix: Chronological List (periods A-D) ....... 84
Particular Topics 88
(a) Bible ................................................................ 88
(b) Exegesis 93
(c) Liturgy 95
(d) Canon Law 98
[(e) Monastic literature 102
[(f) Chronicles ...................................................... 1 10
[(g) Secular literature 113
Translations into Syriac 120
Summary Guide to English Translations ............ 123
Sample Passages from some
more important Writings; 144
Translations into Syriac 284
Select Bibliography ...292
Index of Names (to. HE) 309
I.
A BIRD'S EYE YIEWj THE MAIN PEBIODS
Syriac began -as the local Aramaic dialect of Edessa (Urhay,
modern Urfa in SE Turkey), with its own script, first attested in
inscriptions of the first century AD. It must have been adopted as
the literary language of Aramaic-speaking Christianity at an early
date, and as a result of this its use spread rapidly along with the
spread of Christianity in the eastern provinces of the Roman Em-
pire and in the Persian Empire further east. Syriac is in fact one of
three Late Aramaic dialects which came to produce large surviving
literatures, the other two being Jewish Aramaic and Mandaean; both
in literary quality and in quantity Syriac easily suipasses these other
two large Aramaic literatures.
Syriac literature covers from the second to the twentieth
century AD. This long span of time can conveniently be broken up
into six main periods:
A. The earliest literature: 2nd-3rd century AD.
B. Aphrahat, Ephrem, and other fourth-century writings.
C. Fifth to mid seventh century.
D. Mid seventh to end of the thirteenth century.
E. Fourteenth to nineteenth century. .
F. Twentieth century.
Of these six periods, B-D (4th-13th cent.) provide the most
extensive and most important literature.
7
II.
THE SECULAR AND ECCLESIASTICAL
BACKGROUND*
(a) Periods A-C (2nd-7th cent.) belong to the time when Syriac
writers were living either under the Roman Empire or under the
Persian Empire (Parthians up to AD 226; Sasanians from 226 -
640) . Syriac writers living under the Roman Empire (incre asingly
Christian from the fourth century onwards) mostly came from what
is now SE Turkey and Syria; those living under the Zoroastrian
Persian Empire were from modern Iraq, Iran and the Gulf States.
Under the early Sasanians there were intermittent persecutions of
Christians, mostly at times of war with the Roman Empire; the
most serious of these were under Shapur II in the mid 4th century.
By the 6th century Christianity had become a recognized minority
religion, and martyrs from that period onwards were almost all Zo-
roastrian converts to Christianity from noble families.
Periods A-B (2nd-4th cent.) belong to the time of the undi-
vided Church. Arianism was a serious threat in Ephrem's day. As
a result of the christologiCal controversies of the 5th century Syriac-
speaking Christianity was divided into three ecclesiastical bodies:
(1) the Church of the East (almost entirely in the Persian Empire,
with a Catholicos Patriarch at Seleucia-Ctesiphon), which followed
the strict Antiochene or dyophysite (two-nature) Christology advo-
cated by Theodore of Mopsuestia; (2) those who (along with the
Greek and all the Western Churches) accepted the christological
formula of the Cojincil of Chalcedon (451); these in the course of
the 7th century emerged as two separate bodies, each under a differ-
ent Patriarch of Antioch, namely the Melkites and the Maronites;
and (3) the Syrian Orthodox, who (along with the Armenian, Coptic
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
and Ethiopian Orthodox) rejected the Council of Chalcedon, and
followed the Alexandrine or miaphysite (one-nature) Christology
based on the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria. (The terms 'Nestorian'
for the first group, and 'Monophysite 5 (or 'Jacobite 5 ) for the third
group are seriously misleading, and should be avoided).
It should be noted that the 'ecumenical' councils of this pe-
riod were councils convened by the Roman emperor, and so ap-
plied only within the Roman Empire (though they might subse-
quently be received outside it, as happened with the Council of
Nicaea (325) which was officially accepted by the Church in the
Persian Empire at a synod in 41 0).
The most important centres for Syriac literature were (in
the Roman Empire): Edessa (modem Urfa), Nisibis (until 363),
Serugh, Amid (modern Diyarbekir), Mabbug; by the sixth century
there were a large number of monasteries in (what is now) North
Syria and SE Turkey. In the Persian Empire the main centres were:
Seleucia-Ctesiphon, Nisibis (after 363; its School was especially
influential in the 6th cent.), Arbela, Karka d-Beit Slokh (modem
Kirkuk), Beth Lapat (also called Gundeshapur), Karka d-Ledan,
Qatar. In the sixth and seventh centuries many monasteries were
founded especially in the Nisibis area and in what is now North
Iraq.
Three main formative influences can be identified in peri-
ods A-C (2nd-7th cent.): ancient Mesopotamian (which included
literature in earlier Aramaic dialects), biblical and Jewish, and Greek.
The first two of these influences are most obvious in periods A-B
(2nd-4th cent.), while the third becomes more and more dominant
as time goes on, reaching a peak in the 7th century. Syriac Chris-
tianity is at its most distinctive in the fourth-century writers, and it
has its own individual ascetic and proto-monastic tradition, quite
independent at this date from the forms of monasticism which were
developing in Egypt at the same time. Subsequently, however, the
9
Sec. 8c Eccl. Background
Egyptian monastic tradition, owing to its great prestige, became
dominant in the area of Syriac Christianity as well, and the earlier
distinctive Syriac ascetic tradition was largely forgotten.
(b) Periods D-F (7th-20th cent.) belong to the time of Islamic
domination in the Middle East.
Period D (7th-l 3th cent.) belongs to the time of the Omayyads
(7th-8th century), 'Abbasids (750-c.ll00),Seljuks (in Turkey, 11th/
1 2th centuries) and Mongols (from 1 3th century). Period E ( 1 4th-
1 9th cent.) belongs to the time of (successively) Mongol, Mamluk
(along with other local dynasties), and Ottoman rule in Western
Asia, and opened with a time of great devastation and destruction
through war and then the Black Death . Period F (20th cent. ) be-
longs to the time of the break up of the Ottoman Empire and the
emergence of the modern nation states in West Asia.
By the time of the Arab invasions the ecclesiastical bound-
aries between the different Christian communities had already be-
come virtually fixed. The Syrian Orthodox and the Church of the
East formed the largest of the Syriac Churches . From the 8th cen-
tury onwards many writers of the Syriac Churches preferred to write
in Arabic, rather than Syriac; thus there is very little Melkite and
Maronite writing in Syriac after the 8th century, though Syriac re-
mained the liturgical language in these Churches for much longer
(in the Melkite Church Syriac was in a few localities used liturgically
up to about the 17th century; in the Maronite Church it has contin-
ued to the present day, but in recent years is largely being replaced
by Arabic). As a result of the widespread adoption of Arabic as a
literary language especially in the Melkite and Maronite Churches,
most Syriac literature in period D (7th-13th cent.), and all Syriac
literature in periods E-F (14th-20th cent.) has been produced by
writers from the Church of the East and the Syrian Orthodox
Churches (and, in the more recent centuries, their Eastern Rite
Catholic counterparts).
10
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Especially in the late eighth and the first half of the ninth
century scholars from the various Syriac Churches played an im-
portant role in the transmission of Greek philosophy and sciences
to the Arab world through their translations and commentaries; best
known of these scholars is Hunayn ibn Ishaq, whose normal prac-
tice was to translate first from Greek into Syriac, and then from
Syriac into Arabic; the reason for this seemingly cumbersome pro-
cess was that he was able to benefit from the experience of a long
tradition of translating such Greek texts into Syriac, while there
was no such tradition for translating from Greek into Arabic and so
it was easier to work from one Semitic language (Syriac) to another
(Arabic). Many of these texts of Greek origin eventually reached
western Europe by way of translations from Arabic into Latin made
in Spain in the twelfth century. Syriac scholars thus form an impor-
tant link in the chain of transmission of ancient Greek philosophy
and science to Western Europe.
The Byzantine reconquest of north Syria in the late tenth
century resulted in renewed Greek influence there, above all in the
area of liturgy; this applied especially to the Melkite Church, but
also, to some extent, to the Syrian Orthodox. The Crusades (1 096-
1270) brought the first direct contact with the Western Church, and
it was from this period that the Maronite Church accepted the pri-
macy of the Bishop of Rome. It was not until the mid 1 6th century
onwards that the other Eastern Rite Catholic Churches emerged: a
schism in the Church of the East led to the creation of an indepen-
dent Chaldean hierarchy (1551 ), while the separate Syrian Catholic
Church emerged in the course of the second half of the 1 8th century
(1782 marked the definite emergence of a separate hierarchy).
In India Syriac Christianity goes back, according to a very
ancient tradition, to St Thomas; in any case Christianity was clearly
well established in south India at an early date, and the ecclesiasti-
cal links were with the Church of the East, under the Catholicos
11
Sec. & Ecc!. Background
Patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Very little is known about the pre-
Portuguese period (i.e. up to 1497) since unfortunately very few
relevant historical documents survive. The latter part of the 1 6th
century saw the attempt to latinize the Syriac rite in India and the
suppression of many traditional features of the indigenous Church
there. In reaction to this in the mid 1 7th century a group revolted
against European ecclesiastical domination and connections were
established with the hierarchy of the Syrian Orthodox Church in the
Ottoman Empire, As a result an Indian hierarchy under the Syrian
Orthodox patriarchate came into being and the West Syrian liturgi-
cal tradition was gradually introduced, replacing the earlier East
Syrian tradition. Around the middle of the 19th century, under the
influence of English missionaries, a group within the Syrian Ortho-
dox Church sought to make various reforms, and this led to the
emergence towards the end of the century of the independent Mar
Thoma Church, which has the distinction of being the only 'Re-
formed' Church of Orthodox (as opposed to Catholic) origins.
During Period D (mid 7th - 13th century) the main centres
of Syriac literature continued to be located in (what is now) E Tur-
key, Syria, Iraq, and NW Iran, the Syrian Orthodox predominantly
in SE Turkey and Syria, but also to be found in Iraq (important
centres were Tagrit, and the Monastery of MarMattai, SE of Mosul),
and the Church of the East primarily in Iraq and NW Iran. The
influence of the Church of the East, in particular, stretched along trade
routes right across Asia, and a surviving Chinese-Syriac inscription in
Xian, dated 78 1 , records the arrival of Christianity in western China in
635.
During Period E (14th - 19th century) the Syrian Orthodox
Church has important centres in the area of Malatya (Melitene) and
Tur 'Abdin, as well as in northern Syria and northern Iraq; the
Church of the East is primarily located in northern Iraq, eastern
Turkey and NW Iran.
12
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
The 20th century (Period F) has witnessed widespread dis-
placements of the population of all the Syriac Churches due to war
and (more recently) large-scale emigration to countries all over the
world.
III.
THE SIX MAM PERIODS EACH IN OUTLINE
A. lst-3rd CENTURIES*
This is the most obscure period of Syriac literature. Most
texts are anonymous, and of uncertain date and origin; only a very
few names of actual authors are known. The following are the
most important works of this period:
1*. PESHITTA OLD TESTAMENT This was translated
directly from Hebrew into Syriac; different books were translated
by different people, and perhaps at different times. Probably at
least some books were translated by Syriac-speaking Jews, and then
taken over by the early Syriac-speaking Church; others may have
been translated by early Jewish converts to Christianity. Certain
books, notably the Pentateuch and Chronicles, contain isolated fea-
tures or interpretations which are characteristic of the Targums (Jew-
ish Aramaic translations of the Old Testament). Probably much of
the Peshitta Old Testament had been translated by the end of the
second century. Since Syriac is the 1 ocal Aramaic dialect of Edess a,
it is likely that the translation was made in Edessa, or in the region
of Edess a. The name Peshitta is only first found in period D, when
it was used to distinguish this traditional translation from a sev-
enth-century translation from Greek (the Syro-hexapla).
13
Six Main Periods...
2* . The DIATESS ARON . Probably the earliest form of the
New Testament to get into Syriac was the Diatessaron, or 'harmony'
of the four Gospels, which provided the material from all four Gos-
pels arranged as a single narrative, The Diatessaron is lost in its
original form, and many uncertainties surround it. It is associated
with the name of Tatian, who came from Syria or further east, stud-
ied in Rome under Justin Martyr, and then returned to the east c. 1 70.
If he composed the Diatessaron in Rome then its original language
is likely to have been Greek (Latin is less likely), in which case the
lost Syriac text was a translation (and could date from considerably
later than Tatian 's time); but if Tatian compiled it after his return to
the east, then Syriac is likely to have been the original language in
which it was written. At present there is insufficient evidence to
decide between these two main possibilities.
3*. The OLD SYRIAC GOSPELS. Two fifth-century manu-
scripts (known as the 'Curetonian' and 'Sinaiticus') of the Gospels
preserve the oldest surviving text of the Syriac New Testament,
called today the 'Old Syriac' [ET]. This is a comparatively free
translation of the four separate Gospels, making use (it seems) here
and there of the Diatessaron. The Greek text from which it was
translated was very archaic in character and with many interesting
features, as a result of which the Old Syriac is a witness of great
importance for the study of the early history of the New Testament
text. It is not known exactly when or where the Old Syriac transla-
tion was made: most scholars date it to the third century, but a few
prefer the early fourth. It happens to be the earliest witness to the
existence of the Peshitta Old Testament (or at least, specific books
of it), since the translators used the Peshitta Old Testament text for
quotations from the Old Testament in the Greek Gospels - even in
cases where the Greek form of the quotation is rather different from
that of the Peshitta Old Testament.
14
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
4*. BARDAISAN and the Book of the Laws of the Coun-
tries . B ardais an is the one individual author from this period about
whom something is known, including his exact dates (154-222).
Bardaisan lived in Edessa and belonged to the court circles of King
Abgar VHI, the Great. He must have been highly educated in Greek
as well as in Syriac, but wrote only in Syriac, and was known as 'the
Aramaean philosopher ' . Since he was a speculative thinker some
of whose ideas (e.g. on cosmology) were later considered unortho-
dox, his own writings have not survived, but he is known to have
written in both prose and poetry. The Syriac Book of the Laws of
the Countries, which does survive [ET], is often attributed to him,
but in fact was probably written by one of his pupils, Philip. This
work is a philosophical dialogue (essentially a Greek literary genre)
on the subject of Fate; the speakers are Bardaisan and his various
disciples. In the course of the work there is a description of the
laws (or rather, customs) of various different ethnic groups; it is
from this section that the current title derives. The work was
translated into Greek (where it was known as 'On Fate', and attrib-
uted to Bardaisan himself), and is quoted both in the Clementine
Recognitions (IX. 1 9-29) and in Eusebius' work The Preparation of
the Gospel (VI.10.1-48).
5*. ODES OF SOLOMON [ET]. A group of 42 short lyric
poems of great beauty survive almost complete in Syriac; one of
these is also preserved in Greek, and five in Coptic. Date, place of
origin and original language are all uncertain: some scholars see
them as contemporary with the latest New Testament writings, hav-
ing strong links with the Johannine literature; others place them in
the mid or late second century, while others again see them as coun-
tering Manichaeism, and thus belonging to the late third century
(Mani was put to death in 276). The original language was prob-
ably either Greek or Syriac, though Hebrew or another Aramaic dia-
lect has also been suggested. If the Odes were written in Syriac,
then they probably originate from the Edessa area; it should be
15
Six Main Periods...
noted, however, that they do not conform to the norms of any known
Syriac verse form. Since the Odes of Solomon are highly allusive
in character, it is difficult to determine the audience for which they
were composed. Many of them evidently celebrate the liberated
character of the baptised life in Christ (they are hardly hymns for
the baptismal rite, as was once suggested). In several of the Odes
the author appears to have Christ speaking in the first person, while
in others the allusions and imagery defy any satisfactory interpreta-
tion.
6*. The ACTS OF THOMAS [ET]. There is an extensive
apocryphal literature associated with the name of Thomas. The
two most important works are the Gospel of Thomas (probably writ-
ten in Syria in the second century, and known from Greek frag-
ments and a complete Coptic translation), and the Acts of 'Judas
Thomas', composed in Syriac probably in the third century (place
unknown). The Acts of Thomas survive in both Syriac and an early
Greek translation; translations into several other Oriental Christian
languages also exist. In general character the work resembles the
various Greek apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, which belong to the
genre of the novella, or 'romance 5 (the modern equivalent would
be the historical novel). The Acts describe the apostle Thomas's
mission to India, and the narrative is set out in thirteen sections
(called 'acts'), followed by the Martyrdom of Thomas. Acts I- VI
concern his time in North India and the conversion of king
Gudnaphar, while Acts VII-XIII and the Martyrdom cover his ex-
perience at the court of king Mazdai (evidently in South India).
The descriptions, at various points in the Acts, of the liturgical rites
of baptism and euchaiist (#25-27, 49, 121, 132, 157) are of great
importance for students of oarly Syriac liturgical history. Incorpo-
rated into the Acts of Thomas are two famous poems which are
probably earlier than the rest of the work; these poems are of an
allegorical character, and are often known as the 'Hymn of the Bride 5
(#6-7) and the 'Hymn of the Pearl' (or, 'of the Soul'; ##108-13).
16
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
The topics of the individual acts are: I (#1-16), the alloca-
tion of India to Judas Thomas, and his sale, by Christ, to Habban, a
merchant of king Gudnaphar; on their arrival at Sandarukthey at-
tend the wedding feast of the local king, during which Judas Tho-
mas sings the song of the Bride of Light (#6-7); II (#17-29), Judas
Thomas builds a palace for the king in heaven, rather than on earth;
at first the king is angry, but is eventually won over and he receives
baptism; HI (#30-38), an episode concerning the Black Snake, where
Judas Thomas revives a young man, slain by the snake; IV (#39-
41), a colt invites Judas Thomas to ride on it in order to go to the
city to preach; V (#42-50), Judas Thomas heals a woman possessed
by adevil, and then baptizes her; VI (#51-61) he raises from the
dead a young woman who had been murdered by a youth; she de-
scribes what she has seen in the underworld, and the torments of
the wicked; VH (#62-67), an episode concerning a general (later
on named as Sipur) who seeks the Apostle's help in healing his
wife and daughter; he entrusts them to his deacon Xanthippos;
VIII (#68-8 1 ), four wild asses offer their services to Judas Thomas,'
and they convey him and the general to the city, where the Apostle
heals the general's wife and daughter; IX (#82-11 8) the conversion
of Mygdonia, wife of Karish, a kinsman of king Mazdai; when
Mygconia refuses to sleep with Karish, he complains to Mazdai,
who throws the Apostle into prison, where he sings the Hymn of
the Soul(#108-113);X(#119-133)Mygdonia is baptised, together
with her nurse Narkia; subsequently Sipur and his wife and daugh-
ter also ask for baptism; XI (#134-138), Mazdai's wife Teitia vis-
its Mygdonia and is won over by the Apostle's teaching - to the
dismay of Mazdai; XH (#139-149) Mazdai's son Vizan has vari-
ous conversations with the Apostle, who is again imprisoned; XIII
(#1 50-1 58), Vizan, his wife Manashar, and Teitia are all baptized;
[XIV] The Martyrdom (#159-170): king Mazdai sentences the
Apostle, orders some soldiers to take him up a nearby mountain
and stab him to death. Judas subsequently appears to Sipur and
Vizan, and to the women. Later, some dust from the Apostle's grave
17
Six Main Periods...
heals one of Mazdai's sons from demonic possession, and Mazdai
himself confesses Christ,
7. A Syriac work attributed to 'MELITO the
Philosopher' [ET], claiming to be a Discourse before Antoninus
Caesar (i.e.the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, AD
161-1 80), belongs to the second-century genre of 'Apologies', or
defences of Christianity addressed to the Roman Emperor, of which
several examples survive in Greek. Since it envisages a time when
the emperor might convert to Christianity, it is more likely to be-
long to the third, rather than the second, century. It is uncertain
whether Syriac is the original language; since the work quotes 2
Peter (not in the early Syriac New Testament canon), it may well be
that the Syriac is translated from a lost Greek original.
8. The Syriac SENTENCES OF MENANDER [ET] consist
of wisdom sayings attributed to Menander the Sage. The work has
no clear connection with a Greek collection of Menander Sentences;
it is usually thought, however, that the Syriac is a translation and
that-the work was originally written perhaps in Egypt in the early
Roman period. The author has little knowledge of Judaism and
there are no traces of Christianity.
9. The LETTER OF MARA [ET] to his son Serapion, which
gives various counsels of advice to his son in the face of the vanity
of the world. The author purports to be a pagan, and passing men-
tion is made of 'the wise king' (i.e. Jesus) who was killed by the
Jews, as a result of which Jerusalem fell. The Letter has been
dated variously to the late first century, the third century, or the
fourth century ; since the link between the destruction of Jeras alem
(in AD 70) and the death of Jesus is characteristic of fourth-century
Christian anti- Jewish polemic, it is likely that the Letter is in fact a
Christian product of that century.
10*. The story of the 'Aramaean Sage' AHIKAR [ET] has
the distinction of being the longest-lived piece of Aramaic litera-
18
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
lure, witnesses to it spanning two and a half millennia; the Aramaic
text goes back at least to the fifth century BC, when it is already
found in a papyrus from Elephantine (in the south of Egypt), and
the work was evidently well known to the author of the book of
Tobit, where Ahikar features as a close relative of Tobit (Tobit 1 :21 ).
In the Hellenistic period the book was translated into Greek (now
lost, apart from a section which was incorporated into the Greek
Life of Aesop). It is not known exactly how the story of Ahikar
reached Syriac, but this was probably at an early date. Over the
course of time translations have been made into many different lan-
guages, among them Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopia Georgian, Old
Turkish, Modern Syriac, and (via the lost Greek) Romanian and
Slavonic. The work consists of a narrative framework set in the
time of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (704-68 1 BC), and into this
framework two sets of admonitions to Ahikar 's nephew Nadan had
been incorporated at an early date.
B. THE FOURTH CENTURY
The middle and second half of the fourth century witness the
first major Syriac writings to survive: the Demonstrations of
Aphrahat, the extensive poetry and prose works by Ephrem, and
the anonymous Book of Steps (Liber Graduum).
1 1 *. APHRAHAT (also known as 'the Persian Sage') is the
author of a collection of 23 short works described as 'Demonstra-
tions' or (sometimes) 'Letters' [FT, GT, partial ET]. The first 22
form an alphabetic acrostic (the Syriac alphabet has 22 letters), and
1-10 are specifically dated to AD 337, 1 1-22 to AD 344, and 23 to
August AD 345. The exact identity of the author was unclear to
later writers, and in the earliest manuscripts his name is given as
'Jacob', rather than 'Aphrahat', and this gave rise to his being incor-
rectly identified as*Jacob, bishop of Nisibis (obviously impossible,
sinceJacobofNisibisdiedin338). This confusion must have arisen
at an early date, since it is found in the Latin writer Gennadius (late
19
The Fourth Century
fifth century), as well as in the early Armenian translation of the
Demonstrations. In the Middle Ages further confusion was added
when he was described as a bishop of the famous monastery of Mar
Mattai.
Aphrahat (as he is regularly called today) was certainly writ-
ing within the Persian Empire, and must have been a figure of some
authority within the Church (this emerges especially from Demon-
strations 10 and 14, both of which are addressed to 'the bishops and
clergy'). The Demonstrations cover a wide variety of topics, as
can be seen from the following list:
1, On Faith [ET]
2, On Love [ET]
3, On Fasting
4, On Prayer [ET]
5, On Wars [ET]
6, On the Bnay Qyama [see below for these; ET]
7, On Penitents [ET]
8, On the Resurrection of the Dead [ET]
9, On Humility
10, On the Pastors [ET]
1 1, On Circumcision [ET]
12,OnthePascha[ET]
13, On the Sabbath [ET]
14, Exhortation
15, On the Distinction between foods [ET]
16, On the (gentile) Peoples who have taken the place of the
(Jewish) People [ET]
17, On Christ the Son of God [ET]
1 8, Against the Jews, on Virginity and on Continence [ET]
1 9, Against the Jews who say that they will be gathered together
again [ET]
20, On the Support of the Needy
21, On the Persecution [ET]
20
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
22, On Death and the Last Times [ET]
23, On the Grape in the Cluster, in which there is Blessing (Isaiah
65:8). [partial ET]
The first group often Demonstrations are primarily concerned
with aspects of the Christian life, while in the second group ( 1 1 -22)
many of the Demonstrations are aimed at Christians who were at-
tracted by Judaism and had adopted various Jewish practices (it is
not very likely that Aphrahat was arguing directly with Jews).
Demonstration 4 has the distinction of being the earliest
Christian treatise in any language on prayer (as opposed to the Lord's
Prayer, on which Origen had written in the third century).
Demonstration 6 is one of the most important sources for
knowledge of the early Syriac ascetic tradition, independent of the
influence (which was later to prove very strong) of Egyptian mo-
nasticism. The work is addressed to certain categories of men and
women who had evidently made some sort of ascetic commitment,
perhaps at the same time as baptism (which at that time would have
been adult, rather than infant, baptism). The key terms used are
ihidaye, bnay qyama, bthule and qaddishe. In later usage ihidaya
means 'solitary, hermit', as opposed to dayraya, a cenobitic monk;
in fourth-century texts, however, it has a much wider sense, cover-
ing all of the following: single (in the sense of celibate), single-
minded, and follower of Christ the ihidaya (ihidaya corresponds to
Greek monogenes, 'Only-Begotten' ). Bnay qyama, literally 'chil-
dren of the covenant' (singular bar qyama (masc.) and bath qyama
(fern.)) seems to be another term for the same group; various sug-
gestions have been made for the sense of qyama here, but on the
whole it seems 'covenant', in the sense of formal commitment, is
the most likely). The ihidaye, or bnay qyama, are made up of two
categories, the bthule and the qaddishe. The term bthule, literally
'virgins', refers to unmarried men or women who have committed
themselves to celibacy, while qaddishe, literally 'holy ones', is used
21
The Fourth Century
of married people who have decided to refrain from sexual inter-
course (the term derives from the Sinai narrative in Exodus 19:
compare verse 10 with verse 1 5).
Demonstrations 5, 14 and 2 1 all concent contemporary events,
and so are of historical significance.
Aphrahat's concern with Judaism in the second group was
partly occasioned by external events: in the early 340s (perhaps
341 ), at a. time of hostilities with the Roman Empire, a persecution
took place and a number of prominent Christians, clergy and lay,
were martyred. One of the causes of this seems to have been accu-
sations, made by Jews influential in court circles, that the Chris-
tians secretly favoured the Romans (an accusation probably not with-
out a grain of truth, as can be seen from the much earlier Deni. 5).
(Demonstration 2 1 is specifically on this persecution).
Aphrahat's Demonstrations represent the first extensive
piece of Syriac literature to survive. Many passages are written in
an artistic and highly poetical form of prose, and his works consti-
tute one of the best models of early Syriac prose style. Though
certainly not untouched by Greek influence, Aphrahat is one of the
least hellenized of Syriac writers .
12*. EPHREM (c.306 - 9 vn 373). The date and place of his
birth are unknown. His parents were probably both Christian, and
most of his life was spent in Nisibis where he served as a deacon
under its bishops, beginning with Jacob (James; d.338). In 363,
when Nisibis was handed over to the Persian Empire the Christian
population had to leave and so Ephrem spent the last ten years of
his life in Edessa. It should be noted that the sixth-century biog-
raphy of Ephrem is full of unreliable details, and gives a misleading
portrait of him.
Ephrem wrote in both prose and poetry, and in both these
mediums he made use of two separate forms: some of his prose
works are in straightforward prose, while others are in a highly ar-
22
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
tistic form of prose. In his poetry he makes use of both the niemra
and the madrasha. The memra is employed for narrative poetry,
and is written in couplets consisting of 7 + 7 syllables (later known
as the metre of Mar Ephrem), while the madrasha is used for lyric
poetry written in stanzas, which can be in a variety of different syl-
labic metres, though for any one poem the same metre is adhered to
throughout. Ephrem has a repertoire of some 50 different syllabic
metres, ranging from the very straightforward (e.g.four lines, each
of 5 syllables) to the highly complex.
Ephrem's great reputation rests primarily upon his poetry,
and he is undoubtedly to be classed as the finest and greatest of all
Syriac poets. At the same time Ephrem was a theologian of great
insight, and one who deliberately preferred to express his theology
through the medium of poetry rather than prose. No doubt as a
result of his fame, a very large number of writings came to be trans-
mitted under his name, many of which are certainly not genuinely
by him, while uncertainty surrounds some of the others. Those
mentioned below are for the most part generally accepted to be the
genuine works.
The unsatisfactory eighteenth- and nineteenth-century edi-
tions of Ephrem's works have now almost entirely been replaced
by better modern editions.
Prose. ( 1 ) Ordinary Prose
- Commentary (pushaqa) on Genesis [ET].
- Exposition (turgama) on Exodus [ET]. A set of com-
mentaries on most of the books of the Old Testament is attributed
to Ephrem, but it is only these two that are likely to be genuine (or
if not, at least to come from his circle). The biblical text is com-
mented on in sequence, but unevenly; in the Commentary on Gen-
esis a great deal of attention is paid to the early chapters (especially
1-6), while only intermittent comment is made on the rest of the
23
The Fourth. Century
book, with the exception of Gen.49, for which he offers two differ-
ent sets of comment. The Interpretation on Exodus is much shorter
and incomplete, ending with ch.32. Both works are remarkable for
the large number of Jewish traditions to which they allude, and at
times Ephrem quotes phrases which coincide with one or other of
the Jewish Targums; it is not at all likely, however, that he had
direct access to these, and his knowledge of Jewish traditions prob-
ably came to him orally.
- Commentary on the Diatessaron [ET]. The Syriac original
of most of this work has only come to light within the last few de-
cades; before that, the work was only known from an Armenian
translation (which is still the only complete text). In this work
Ephrem comments on the harmonized text of the Gospel known as
the Diatessaron, rather than on a single Evangelist; besides being
a very important witness to the text of the Diatessaron, the Com-
mentary is of particular interest as an extensive fourth-century source
for early Syriac exegesis of the Gospel text. The work is very
varied in its literary character: some sections read more like notes
while others contain extended theological digressions; others, again,'
take on almost a lyrical character. Since the exegesis of the Com-
mentary sometimes conflicts with that found in the Hymns, it has
been suggested that the Commentary may derive from the follow-
ers of Ephrem, rather than Ephrem himself; to complicate matters
further, there are some notable differences here and there between
the Syriac and Armenian texts, and at one point there is a duplica-
tion in the text (X. 1 -2(beginning) and XV. 1 9b). The Commentary
also contains the only clear case in the whole of the Ephrem corpus
of knowledge of Aphrahat: XVI.25 clearly reflects Aphrahat
Dem.23:9.
- Commentary on Acts [LT]. This short work survives only in
Armenian translation.
- Commentary on the Pauline Epistles [LT]. This too sur-
24
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
vives only in Armenian. It includes a commentary on III Corinthians,
an apocryphal letter of Paul which had quite wide circulation in the
early Syriac Church, but which no longer survives in Syriac.
- Prose Refutations [ET]. Under this modern general title
the following works are included: Five Discourses addressed to
Hypatius, against false doctrines; Against Bardaisan's Discourse
entitled 'Domnus ' (the work is also known as Against the Platonists) ;
Against false teaching (or: Against Marcion, I); Two Discourses
against Marcion (or: Against Marcion II-III); Discourse against
Mani.
Prose (2) Artistic Prose
- Discourse on our Lord [ET].
- Letter to Publius [ET]. Two extensive extracts survive from
this letter which consists in a meditation on the Last Judgement.
- Discourse on the Signs which Moses performed in Egypt
[FT] . This belongs to a group of discourses under Ephrem's name,
and this one alone has been judged to be genuine.
Poetry (1) Narrative verse (memre)
- Six memre on Faith [ET]. Usually thought to be an early
work.
- Memre on Nicomedia [FT]. This extensive cycle takes as
its topic the devastation by earthquake of Nicomedia in 358. The
work survives in Syriac only in a few quotations, but is available
almost completely in an early Armenian translation.
- Memre against Bardaisan [ET].
A large number of memre are transmitted under Ephrem's
name, only a few of which are likely to be genuine. In the four
volumes of Sermones (= memre) in E. Beck's critical edition the
25
The Fourth Century
following are considered by him as probably genuine:
-1.1-3, On Reproof
- n ^> On Jonah and the Repentance of NmevehfETl This
ran Imv ^ ™ tra " Slated lnt0 Greek ' ArmenramGeor-
gran and Ethiopic; many excerpts from it are to be found both in
the Synan Orthodox Fenqrtho and in the Church of the East's Hudra
- H.4, On the Sinful Woman (Luke 7) fET]. The core of this
mfluenua^ poem rs considered by Beck to be genuine. Th „ j "
.venntrodnces the Seller of Unguents and Satin (posine as oTe of
later writers. There rs a Greek adaptation, through which these
motifs ultimately reached the medieval west. "
- IV.2 On Solitaries [ET], This alone of the texts in Beck's
Sermones HI and IV m.ght possibly be genuine. The menu ed
hed by him m his Nachtrage zu Ephrem are not likely to be B e, u
me and the same applies to the many memre published elsewh ne
under Ephrem's name. uci^wneie
Poetry (2) Lyrical poems (madrashe, or prayer sonas- con
ventionally translated 'hymns') g
These constitute Ephrem's most important writing thev
come down to us in collections of varying sizes preserved with the
c ipts ol the Irfth to seventh century (later manuscripts and the
urging tradition provide only excerpts). It ,s uncertain wheth r
t/cohe e o tl0 tT g ° ba f t0 Ephrem hlmSelf ' ° r t0 *°™ ^ter d-
nc b 485 1IS m r , ^ * ^ ^ they Were alre ^ >* exist-
ence by 485, when Philoxenus refers to several of them (he also
mentions some collections which no longer survive).
- madrashe on Faith [ET], This is the largest collection (87)
s ss rsr ous group ° f five — - «* ** - >*
26
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- madrashe onNisibis [ET for 1-21, 35-43, 52-68]. This col-
lection of 77 poems is usually known under the Latin title given it
by its first editor (Bickell); only the first 34 concern Nisibis and its
bishops, while the remainder are for the most part concerned with
the theme of the Descent of Christ into the Underworld (Sheol). In
a small group of the second half (nos 52-54) Ephrem employs the
ancient Mesopotamian genre of the precedence dispute, where two
characters (m this case Satan and Death) dispute in alternating verses
over which of the two has superior power over human beings; this
genre was subsequently taken up and adapted by the authors of the
later Dialogue poems between pairs of biblical characters (see 17,
below, for these).
- madrashe against Heresies. Most of the poems in this group
of 56 madrashe are directed against the teaching of Marcion,
Bardaisan and Mani; they probably belong to Ephrem's last ten
years when he was in Edessa.
- madrashe on Virginity [ET]. This collection of 52 poems (a
few are lost or damaged) covers many other topics as well (e.g. 4-7
are entitled 'On oil, the olive, and the mysteries of our Lord').
- madrashe on the Church [GT], This collection, also of 52
poems, covers a variety of topics; there are several gaps where the
manuscript is defective.
- madrashe on the Nativity [ET]. This collection was prob-
ably originally much larger than the 28 poems in Beck's edition,
and is likely to have included a small number of perhaps genuine
poems in the collection now entitled 'On Epiphany' (in Ephrem's
day the Nativity and Epiphany (Baptism) of Christ were celebrated
on the same day, 6th Jan.). Excerpts from a number of them fea-
ture in the liturgical texts for the period of Subbara and Nativity in
both the Fenqitho and the Hudra.
27
^
The Fourth Century
- madrashe on Unleavened Bread (21), on the Crucifixion
(9), and on the Resurrection (5) [FT]. The first group of this Pas-
chal cycle is missing several poems in the middle. A number of
stanzas from these madrashe also feature in the Fenqitho and Hudra.
- madrashe on Paradise [ET]. This group of 1 5 poems prob-
ably belong to his time in Nisibis.
- madrashe on the Fast (10).
- madrashe against Julian [ET]. This small collection of four
madrashe is concerned with the death of the emperor Julian on cam-
paign in lhe Persian Empire in 363; this was seen by Ephrem (and
by Christian writers in general) as a punishment for his reversion to
paganism and his various actions taken against Christianity.
- Three further collections, on the ascetics Abraham of Qidun
( 1 5) and Julian the Elder (Saba; 24), and on the Confessors (6) are
attributed to Ephrem, but most of these madrashe cannot be by him
for various reasons; those which may be genuine are: On Abraham
of Qidun 1-5; oh Julian Saba 1-4.
- A collection of 51 hymns [LT] is preserved only in Arme-
nian translation. Some at least of these could well be genuine and
represent material belonging to some of the lost collections of
madrashe.
13*. BOOK OF STEPS (LIBER GRADUUM). This is a
work dealing with spiritual direction, consisting in 30 chapters [LT;
ET forthcoming]. The author/who almost certainly lived in the
Persian Empire (there is a reference to the river Zab, a tributary of
the river Tigris), is unknown; probably he was writing in the late
fourth century (or possibly early fifth). Within the Christian com-
munity which the anonymous author is addressing a distinction is
made between the 'Upright' (ki'ne) and the 'Perfect' or 'Mature'
(gmire): the former observe the 'lesser commandments' and live a
28
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
life of active charity, while the latter follow the 'greater command-
ments', which involve a total renunciation of belongings and a radi-
cal imitation of the life of Christ.
The Book of Steps was rarely copied as a whole, and most
of the (fairly numerous) manuscripts contain only a small number
of Discourses (sometimes mis attributed: e.g. Mis wrongly attrib-
uted to Evagrius). The Book of Step's two-fold classification was
taken up later by Philoxenus (see 22, below), whereas most subse-
quent writers preferred the three-fold model developed by John the
Solitary (see 1 6, below).
The 30 chapters have the following headings:
1 , On the distinction between the major commandments, for the
perfect, and the minor commandments, for the upright.
2, On those who wish to be perfect.
3, The physical and the spiritual ministry.
4, On 'vegetables' for the sick (cp Rom. 14:2).
5, On 'milk' for infants (cp I Cor.3:l-2).
6, On the person who becomes perfect and continues to grow.
7, On the commandments for the upright.
8, On the person who gives all he has to the poor to eat.
9, On uprightness and on the love of tlu, upright and of the proph-
ets.
10, On the advantage we have when we endure evil while per-
forming good; and on fasting and humiliation of body and
soul.
1 1 , On hearing the Scriptures, and when the Law is read before us .
12, On the ministry of the hidden and the revealed church.
1 3, On the way of life of the upright.
14, On the upright and the perfect.
1 5, On the marriage instinct in Adam.
16, On how a person grows as a result of the major command-
ments.
29
Fifth to Mid Seventh Centuries
17, On the sufferings of our Lord, by which an example is pro-
vided for us.
1 8 , On the te ars of pray er.
19, On the distinguishing characteristics of the way of perfec-
tion.
20, On the hard steps on this way.
21 , On the Tree of Adam.
22, On the judgements by which those who make them are not
saved.
23, On Satan, Pharoah, and the Children of Israel.
24, On repentance,
25, On the voice of God and that of Satan.
26, On the second law which the Lord laid down for Adam.
27, On the matter of the thief who was saved.
28, On the human soul not being blood.
29, On subduing the body.
30, On the commandments of faith and of love of the Solitaries.
C. FIFTH TO MID SEVENTH CENTURIES
(a) 5th cent
14. CYRILLONA. (fl. c.400). A small collection of six
verse texts (which evidently belong together) include two which
are specifically attributed to a Cyrillona, whose identity remains
mysterious. Since one of the poems concerns an incursion of the
Huns, this can be dated to c.3 96 . Some modern writers have iden-
tified him with 'Absamya, the son of Ephrem's sister, solely on the
grounds that he is also said to have written a poem on an incursion
by the Huns; even more unlikely is the suggestion that he is to be
identified as Qiyore (Cyrus), head of the School of Edessa. The
six poems are in several different metres and cover the following
topics: on locusts and on the incursion of the Huns; on the Wash-
ing of the Feet; on the Pasch; on the Crucifixion; on Wheat and
30
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
its symbolism; and on Zacchaeus (those on the incursion of the
Huns and the Crucifixion are the ones specifically attributed to
Cyrillona). [GT, FT, IT].
15.BALAI. (fl. first half of 5th cent.). Nothing is known of
the life of this poet except that he was a chorepiskopos, perhaps in
the area around Aleppo.
- Five madras he in honour of the departed bishop Akakios of
Beroea (Aleppo).
- A madrasha written for the dedication of a new church in
Qenneshrin (Chalkis). [ET, FT, GT].
- Many short liturgical ba'awata (supplicatory hymns) in the
five-syllable metre (known as the metre of Mar Balai) are attrib-
uted to him, but whether correctly or not is uncertain.
- An early manuscript of the epic poem on Joseph (in 12
memre, employing the 7+7 syllable metre) attributes this work to
Balai, rather than to Ephrem: its true author remains uncertain.
16*. JOHN THE SOLITARY (John of Apamea). (first half
5th cent.). Much uncertainty surrounds the identity of the author of
a considerable number of works on spirituality: the manuscripts
attribute them variously to John the Solitary, John of Apamea, and
John of Lykopolis (or Thebes; d. c.394); the last is certainly incor-
rect, but it seems quite likely that John the Solitary and John of
Apamea are one and the same person who belongs to the first half
of the fifth century, and is to be distinguished from 'John the Egyp-
tian', whose teaching Philoxenos opposed, and a later 'John of
Apamea', condemned at a Syrian synod in 786/7. The works pub-
lished so far under John's name all seem to be genuinely by the
same author, and their threefold pattern of the spiritual life, the stages
31
Fifth to Mid Seventh Centuries
of the body, of the soul and of the spirit, was to prove very influen-
tial on later Sy riac monastic writers . John must have received his
education in both Greek and Syriac, and he may have had some
training in medicine. Several of his works are m the form of dia-
logues, imitating the Greek genre of the philosophical dialogue that
had already been used in the Book of the Laws of the Countries.
His main works so far published are:
- A dialogue on the soul and the passions [FT].
- Commentary on Qohelet (Ecclesiastes).
- Three Letters [GT], the first addressed to Theodoulos and
his circle, the other two to Eutropios and Eusebios.
- Six Dialogues with Thaumasios; Letters and treatises ad-
dressed to Thaumasios, on the mystery of the economy of Christ
[GT,FT].
- Three discourses [ET of 1 ; GT]; the first is on perfection,
or stillness; the second and third on the mystery of baptism.
- Letter to Hesychios, on the monastic life [ET].
- Discourse on Prayer [ET].
A considerable number of works still remain to be published.
17*. ANONYMOUS POETRY. Although it is very difficult to
assign a date to anonymous poetry (of which a great deal sur-
vives), the following narrative poems (memre) on biblical topics
probably belong to the fifth century:
- Memra on Abraham and Sarah in Egypt (Gen. 12: 10-20)
[ET].
- Two memre on the Sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. 22) [ET], The
second of these makes use of the first, and both give a prominent
place to Sarah (who is never mentioned in the biblical narrative).
32
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Four memre on Joseph (attributed to Narsai, but probably
notbyhim)[ETof3-4].
[ET].
- Memra on Elijah and the Widow of Sarepta (1 Kings 17)
- Memra on Mary and Joseph [ET].
It is likely that many of the dialogue soghyatha dealing with
biblical characters also belong to the fifth century since they are
transmitted in both East and West Syriac manuscripts; among these
will be:
- Abel and Cain [GT] ; Mary and the Angel [ET] ; Mary and
the Magi [ET]; John the Baptist and Christ [ET]; The Cherub and
the Thief [ET]; the Dispute of the Months [ET].
Many anonymous madrashe, such as many of those on the
Virgin Mary [ET], are also likely to belong to the fifth century.
18*. ANONYMOUS PROSE: HAGIOGRAPHY. Very
early manuscripts can sometimes assure a fifth-century date for a
hagiographical text; in other cases, such dating is less secure, but
nevertheless probable. The following are the most notable works :
- Life of Abraham of Qidun and his niece Mary (wrongly
attributed to Ephrem) [ET for section on Mary]. This was trans-
lated into Greek and thence into Latin; the Latin served as the basis
for a play on this subject by the tenth-century nun Hrotswitha of
Gandersheim.
- Life of the Man of God [FT, ET]. The earliest fonn of this
work was composed in Syriac, and this was translated into Greek in
a re-edited form where the hero is now named Alexis; this ampli-
fied Greek story was subsequently translated back into Syriac, as
well as into Latin (which served as the basis for one of the earliest
33
Fifth to Mid Seventh Centuries
pieces of medieval French literature).
- Martyrdoms of Shmona, Gurya and Habbib [ET]. The cult
of these Edessene martyrs (probably martyred in 297 and 309) spread
widely and the Syriac Acts were translated into Greek.
- Teaching of Addai [ET], Martyrdoms of Sharbel and
Bars amy a [ET]. The Teaching of Addai recounts in much more
extended form the legend of the correspondence between king Abgar
the Black of Edessa and Jesus, which is already recorded by Eusebius
in Greek translation in his Ecclesiastical History (1.13). Among
the additional materials are sermons in Edessa by Addai, and an
early account of the Finding of the Cross (by Protonike, wife of the
emperor Claudius, rather than by Helena, mother of Constantine, as
the standard legend has it). The Teaching of Addai has many fea-
tures in common with the purely legendary martyrdoms (under
Traj an) of Sharbel and Bars amy a. It is quite likely that this group
of texts was produced in Edessa in the 420s and 430s in circles
supporting Ibas against bishop Rabbula.
- Euphemia and the Goth [ET]. This local Edessene narra-
tive concerns the story of a young woman of Edessa forcefully mar-
ried to a Goth who had been billeted in her mother's house.
- Acts of the Persian martyrs under Shapur II. A large num-
ber of texts concerning martyrs during Shapur 's persecution of Chris-
tians in the 340's come down to us; these vary very considerably in
character, date and reliability. It is likely that the oldest ones were
written in the early decades of the fifth century, and these include:
the older of the two (related) Acts of the Catholicos Simeon bar
Sabba'e, the martyrdoms of Miles, of Pusai, of Martha [ET], and
thos e of s e veral other martyrs . In the course of time many further
accounts of martyrs from this, the most severe of persecutions un-
der the Sasanians, came to be written.
34
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Acts of the Persian martyrs under Yezdgerd I and Bahrain
V. A small group of short but important accounts of martyrdoms in
the early 420s survives (one of these is attributed to a certain Abgar);
they include the martyrdoms of Narsai (not the poet!), Tataq, Jacob
the Notary, the ten martyrs of Beth Garmai, 'Abda, Peroz and
Mihrshabur. The martyrdom of 'Abda is incomplete, but further
. information about it is provided in Greek, in Theodoret's Ecclesi-
astical History V. 39.
- Acts of the Persian martyrs under Yezdgerd II. Several
extensive accounts of martyrdoms from the 440s come down, nota-
bly the cycle of texts concerning Pethion, where the narratives have
taken on legendary proportions [ET of martyrdom of Anahid].
- Life of Symeon the Stylite [ET]. This was composed shortly
after Symeon's death in 459 by a monk of the monastery attached to
Symeon's pillar. Together with Theodoret's short eyewitness ac-
count in his Historia Religiosa, this is the most important source for
the life of this influential pillar saint. The Syriac Life survives in at
least two slightly different forms.
- 'Julian Romance' [ET] . This long work, bitterly hostile to
the emperor Julian, slain in battle in 363, is primarily concerned
with his successor, Jovian, who is portrayed in highly eulogistic
terms. The work (whose opening is lost) was certainly composed
in Edessa, and probably belongs to the fifth century (rather than the
sixth, as was formerly thought).
- Life of Rabbula [ET in preparation], bishop of Edessa 41 1 -
43 6 . This is in the form of a panegyric. (Rabbula was himself an
author who wrote in both Greek and Syriac; of the latter, only his
translation of Cyril of Alexandria's work On True Faith and some
ecclesiastical canons survive).
- Prose homily on Abraham and Isaac (Gen .22) [ET].
35
Fifth to Mid Seventh Centuries
19*.NARSAI.(E; c.399-c.502). Born in the Persian Em-
pire at ' Ain Duiba in Ma'alta, he was orphaned at an early age and
was brought up by an uncle who was superior of the monastery of
KfarMari, near Beth Zabdai; he also spent 10 years as a student at
the Persian School in Edessa, to which he subsequently returned as
a teacher, eventually (at an unknown date) becoming its Head.
Owing to conflict with the bishop Cyrus, Narsai left Edessa (per-
haps c.47 1 ) for Nisibis, where, with the help of its bishop Barsauma
he reestablished the School (which no doubt took in the staff and
students of the Persian School of Edessa when that was closed in
489 by order of the emperor Zeno); he was still alive in 496, the
date of the first Statutes of the School of Nisibis [ETJ. The date of
his death, certainly at a great age, is not known. His surviving
works are all in verse, being raemre using both the 7:7 and 12: 12
metres. Some eighty memre, or verse homilies, are preserved, the
majority dealing with biblical topics (both Old and New Testaments);
there is also an important group which constitute verse commentar-
ies on the baptismal and eucharistic rites. Although Narsai is prob-
ably the most important poet of the Church of the East, only a small
number of his homilies are so far available in modern translations;
these include:
- 6 memre on Creation [FT].
- 4 memre on baptism and eucharist (one of these, Homily
1 7, is almost certainly not by Narsai himself, but must date from the
sixth century) [ET].
- 5 memre on dominical feasts (Nativity, Epiphany, Passion,
Resurrection, Ascension) [ETJ. These include several passages of
christological concern, where Narsai opposes the position of Cyril
of Alexandria.
-6 memre on Old Testament topics [ET]: Enoch and Elijah, Hood,
Blessings of Noah, Tower of Babel, Tabernacle, Brazen Serpent.
36
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- 5 memre on Gospel Parables [FT]: Ten Virgins, Prodigal
Son, Rich man and Lazarus, Workers in the Vineyeard, Wheat and
Tares.
- Memra on the Three Doctors (Diodore, Nestorius,
Theodore) [FT].
The dialogue soghyatha attributed to Narsai are almost cer-
tainly not by him.
(b) 5th/6th cent.
20*.JACOBofSERUGH(W; d.29Nov521). Jacob, per-
haps the finest Syriac poet after Ephrem, was born at Kuitam on the
river Euphrates some time in the middle of the fifth century; he
received his education at the Persian School in Edessa, but reacted
against its christological teaching . At an unknown date he became
chorepiskopos in the Serugh area (to SW of Edessa), and in 519
was appointed bishop of Batnan da-Smgh. He evidently disliked
and tried to keep out of the contemporary christological controver-
sies, and it is only from some of his Letters that (under pressure
from his correspondents) he openly expresses his disapproval of
the doctrinal formula of Chalcedon (45 1 ). His fame rests chiefly
on a very large number of surviving memre in the 12-syllable metre;
some 225 of these have been edited so far; but many more still
remain unpublished. The vast majority of the memre deal with
biblical topics, often in a highly imaginative way. In several memre
(notably those on the Six Days of Creation) the influence of the
exegesis of Theodore of Mopsuestia can be discerned, a legacy of
Jacob's education at the Persian School in Edessa. A number of
homilies are devoted to different aspects of the life of the Virgin
Mary, and there are also some which deal with particular saints (e.g.
Simeon the Sty lite); others cover a variety of other topics, includ-
ing ascetic, liturgical and eschatological themes . Six prose honii-
37
5th / 6th Cent.
lies (turgame) also survive, concerned with the Nativity, Epiphany,
the Great Fast (Lent), Palm Sunday (Hosha'na), the Passion, and
the Resurrection. Jacob has also left 43 Letters, prose lives of two
contemporary saints (Daniel of Galash and Hannina), and various
madrashe; of these only the Letters have so far been published.
Three Anaphoras and the Maronite baptismal service are also at-
tributed to Jacob . As with Nars ai, only a small number of Jacob 's
works are yet available in modern translations, notably the follow-
ing:
- Memre concerning the Virgin Mary [IT, ET forthcoming].
- 7 memre against the Jews [FT]. The sixth of these is in the
form of a dispute between the Synagogue and the Church.
- Memre on the dominical Feasts [ET forthcoming].
- 4 memre on Creation [FT]
- Memra on the Veil of Moses [ET].
- Memra on Ephrem [ET].
- Memra on Simeon the Sty lite [ET].
- Prose homilies, or turgame [FT, ET forthcoming].
- Various Letters [FT] and other memre [ET].
2 1 . SIMEON the POTTER (Quqaya) ( W; fl. early 6th cent.) .
The poetic talents of this potter from the North Syrian village of
Geshir were discovered by Jacob of Sarugh. 9 short poems on the
Nativity [ET] survive, and these gave rise to a popular genre of
short poems known as quqyoto.
22*. PHILOXENOS/AKSENOYO of MABBUG (W; d.10
Dec 523). He was born in the Persian Empire, at Tahel in Beth
Garmai. According to a late biography he studied first at the mon-
astery of Mar Gabriel in Tur 'Abdin before going on to the Persian
School in Edessa. There he was one of a number of students who
38
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
reacted against the School's dyophysite, or two-nature, Christological
tradition (others included Jacob of Serugh and Simeon of Beth
Arsham); he became a strong opponent of the Council of Chalcedon
and played an active part in the various controversies of the time.
In 485 he became metropolitan of Mabbug (consecrated on 18 Au-
gust). After the death of the emperor Anastasius in 5 1 8 the anti-
Chalcedonian bishops were exiled as a result of the pro-Chalcedonian
policy of the new emperor, Justin I. Philoxenos was exiled first to
Gangra (in Paphlagonia) and then (c. 520/1) to Philippoupolis (in
Thrace), where he died, reputedly from suffocation by smoke from
the public baths.
Philoxenos was the most important Syrian Orthodox theolo-
gian writing in Syriac of his time. Although his own knowledge of
Greek was probably not very profound, he became aware of the
need to translate key Greek texts, such as the New Testament and
the Creed, with greater fidelity to the Greek original, and so he
sponsored revised translations of these (the New Testament revi-
sion was undertaken by Polycarp, his chorepiskopos, and completed
in 508). The following are his most important works :
- 'Admonition on (the monastic) way of life', in 13 memre
[ET, FT]. This important work of monastic guidance survives in a
large number of manuscripts, indicating its popularity.
- Ten memre on the phrase "One of the holy Trinity was
embodied and suffered"; also known as Ihe memre against Habbib'
[LT/FT] . At the end there is an important florilegium, with short
excerpts from both Greek and Syriac writers. This is an early work,
dating from c.482/4.
- 'Three memre on the Trinity and on the Incarnation' ; also
known as 'the Book of Opinions (Ktaba d-re'yane)' [LT].
- Commentary on the Prologue of St John [FT]. This impor-
tant work is not so much a commentary as a theological treatise
39
5th / 6th Cent.
focusing on John ch. 1 ; it must date from shortly after 508, since it
mentions the revision of the Peshitta New Testament which he spon-
sored (Philoxenos also explains why it was necessary).
- Commentary on St Matthew and St Luke [ET]. This only
survives in fragmentary form.
- Memra on the Annunciation [GT]. This perhaps buongs to
the previous item.
- Memra on the indwelling of the Holy Spirit [ET,FT]. This
is concerned with the question whether the Holy Spirit departs from
someone who sins.
- Letters. A considerable number of letters survive (some-
times only in excerpts), and some of these constitute lengthy theo-
logical treatises . The following have been published:
- Letter on Faith, addressed to the Monks [ET, FT].
- Letter to the emperor Zeno, on the incarnation of God
the Word [ET].
- First Letter to the monks of Beth Gaugal [ET].
- Second Letter to the monks of Beth Gaugal [FT].
- Letter to the monks of Senoun [FT].
- Letter to the monks of Tell 4 Ada.
- Letter to Patricius of Edessa [FT]. An abbreviated form
of this monastic letter was included in the Greek translation of
the 'First Part' of Isaac of Nineveh's writings, featuring there
under Isaac's name.
- Letter to Abraham and Orestes, priests of Edessa, con-
cerning Stephen bar Sudhaili [ET].
- Letter to Abu Ya'far, the stratelates (general) of Hirta d-
Na'man. The authenticity of this is uncertain.
40
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Letter to the Palestinian monks [FT].
- Letter to the Lector Maron from Anazarba [FT].
- Letter to Shem'on, abbot of the monastery of Tell 'Ada
[FT].
- Letter to the orthodox monks in the East [FT].
- Letter to someone recently converted from the world
(i.e., a novice) [ET].
- Letter to a convert from Judaism [FT].
A Letter on the three stages of the monastic life is also attrib-
uted to Philoxenus, but this is certainly incorrect; the work prob-
ably belongs to Joseph the Seer (see 67, below).
- Excepts on Prayer [ET].
- Three anaphoras and a short baptismal rite are attributed to
Philoxenos, but whether he is really the author is far from certain.
23 * . ISAAC of ANTIOCH . The conventional designation
'Isaac of Antioch' in fact covers several different poets by the name
of Isaac. In the seventh century Jacob of Edessa already distin-
guished three different people: (1) Isaac of Amid, said to have
been a pupil of Ephrem, who visited Rome and who served as a
priest in Amid (other sources state that this Isaac was a pupil of
Ephrem's pupil Zenobius, and not of Ephrem himself); he is prob-
ably the author of a surviving memra on Constantinople; (2) Isaac
'the Great', from Edessa, who flourished at the time of Peter the
Fuller, patriarch of Antioch (d. 488). This Isaac is probably the
author of the long poem on the Parrot in Antioch which sang the
Trisagion with Peter the Fuller's additional wording 'who was cru-
cified for us' ; (3) Another Isaac from Edessa, who began as an anti-
Chalcedonian, but under bishop Asklepios of Edessa (522-525)
41
*
6th Century
became Chalcedonian. In addition to these three Isaacs, belonging
respectively to the first half of the fifth century, the second half of
the fifth century and the early sixth century, there was probably a
fourth poet Isaac, designated 'Isaac the Solitary ' . Nearly 200 memre
attributed to one or other Isaac survive, but of these only 69 have
been published so far, and for the most part it is unclear to .which of
the Isaacs these should be allocated. Of the homilies that have
been published only very few correspond with those to be found in
the earliest manuscripts (sixth century), where the author is simply
designated 'Isaac the teacher'. Very little of the corpus of homi-
lies under the name of Isaac is available in modern translation:
- Memra on Constantinople [ET].
- Memra against the Jews [ET].
- Two memre on the Incarnation [FT].
A facing Latin translation is available for the 37 texts by Isaac
edited by Bickell (1973); these include some madrashe,
24. SYMMACHUS (W). This otherwise unknown author
has left an imaginative Life of Abel [ET]. He is probably not the
same man as the Symmachus who wrote a commentary on Song of
Songs 6:10 - end (to supplement that of the Syriac translation of
Gregory of Nyssa's commentary on that book).
(c) 6th cent.
25. ANONYMOUS CHRONICLE, often known as
that of 'Joshua the Stylite' (W; first quarter of 6th cent.). This
local Edessene chronicle, which gives a detailed account of events
in the Edessa area from 495-507, has been preserved through its
incorporation into the late eighth-century Zuqnin Chronicle (= 69
below).
42
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
26. STEPHEN bar SUDHAILI (W; fl. early 6th cent.). A
speculative thinker with pantheist tendencies, he was probably
the author of the Book of the Holy Hierotheos [ET], which
purports to be by Hierotheos, the teacher of Dionysius the
Areopagite. He was the recipient of letters from both Philoxenus
and Jacob of Semgh .
27. SERGIUS of RESH'AINA (W; d.536). A priest and
archiatros, Sergius received his education in Alexandria; he is chiefly
famous for his translations from Greek, which included several of
Galen's medical writings and the Dionysian Corpus (Sergius' trans-
lation of this was subsequently revised at the end of the seventh
century by Phokas of Edessa). (Translations of Porphyry's Eisagoge,
or introduction to Aristotle's Logical works, and of Arisotle's Cat-
egories have been attributed to Sergius, but this cannot be correct).
His surviving original writings include:
- a treatise on the spiritual life, serving as an introduction to
his translation of Dionysius the Areopagite [FT].
- Two introductions to Aristotle's Logic, a longer one ad-
dressed to Theodore of Karkh Juddan, and a shorter one to Philotheos
(unpublished).
28. SHEM'ON (SIMEON) of BETH ARSHAM (W;
d.c.548). Syrian Orthodox bishop of Beth Arsham (on the Tigris),
to whom are ascribed two letters [ET] of great historical impor-
tance concerning the Christian martyrs of Najran (in 518, 522 or
523 : the precise date is uncertain), and of a polemical treatise 'On
Barsauma [of Nisibis] and the Sect of the Nestorians', which deals
with the spread of dyophysite christology in the East, as seen from
a hostile perspective. It has been suggested that Shem'on is also
the author of the Book of the Himyarites [ET], which is a further,
43
6th Century
slightly later, account of the martyrdoms (the work is unfortunately
not preserved complete); this, however, is doubtful, and indeed the
two Letters may be later re workings of an original letter/letters by
Shem'on.
29.ELIAS(W; fl. mid 6th cent). Author of the Life of John,
bishop of Telia [LT], addressed to his spiritual brethren Mar Sergius
and Mar Paul.
30*. DANIEL of SALAH(W; 11. mid 6th cent.). Author of
an extensive and important commentary on the Psalms, only small
extracts of which have so far been published.
31*. CYRUS of EDESS A (E; fl. 2nd quarter of 6th cent).
Since he was known as 'of Edessa' he was probably born at Edessa.
He was a disciple of Mar Aba (Catholicos 540-552) during the time
Mar Aba taught at the School of Nisibis (c.533/8). He taught at the
School of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, and became the director there. Sub-
sequently, after Mar Aba's death, he founded a monastery-school at
Hirta (al-Hira). He is the author of six 'Explanations' of the main
dominical commemorations [ET] (the Fast, Pascha, the Passion,
Resurrection, Ascension, Pentecost).
32. THOMAS of EDESSA (E; tl. 2nd quarter of 6th cent.).
Pupil of Mar Aba and successor to him as a teacher at the School of
Nisibis. His Expositions of the Feasts of the Nativity and of
Epiphany survive (only the former has been edited in full).
33. CHRONICLE of EDESSA (W; mid 6th cent.). This
chronicle [ET, GT, LT], which may well be based on the local
Edessene archives, opens with a famous account of a flood in Edessa
in November 201, in the course of which, among other buildings,
the sanctuary (haykla) of the church of the Christians' was destroyed.
The other entries (AD 540 is the latest) are much shorter, and the
44
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
absence of any mention of Addai is especially to be noted.
34*.JOHNofEPHESUS(W; c.507-c.588). Bom near Amid
he entered the monastery of Mar John Urtaya at Amid at the ase of
1 5. In the 530s he travelled to Antioch, Egypt and Constantinople
and became abbot of the monastery of Mar Mare near
Constantinople. He was sent by the emperor Justinian to convert
pagans m Asia Minor. About 558 he was consecrated metropolitan
of Ephesus by Jacob Baradaeus. During the reign of Justin II he
was imprisoned for a time, due to his opposition to the Council of
Chalcedon. His two surviving works are of the greatest importance
for sixth-century Church history.
- Lives of the Eastern Saints [ET]. This work consists of 58
short pieces on contemporary Syrian Orthodox holy men and women
mostly from the Amid region, and many of whom John had known
in person.
- Ecclesiastical History [LT]. This work covered from the
time of Julius Caesar up to 588, presumably shortly before his death
It was arranged in three books, of which only the third is preserved
complete [ET]. Book I, covering up to 449 is completely losf for
Book II, covering 449-57 1 , there is an extensive adaptation form-
ing the third part of the Chronicle of Zuqnin (= 69 below), as well
as a few fragments of the original work.
35. PETER of KALLINIKOS (W; d.591 ). Syrian Orthodox
Patriarch of Antioch (581 -591 ). He appears to have written both in
Synac and m Greek; one work definitely written in Syriac is a
verse memra on the Crucifixion [ET], and at least one [ET] of his
seven letters that survive (in part) was also written in Syriac His
other letters, and three theological treatises, all of which survive
only in Syriac translation, were all originally written in Greek: these
are: a Treatise against Proba and John Barbur; the extensive work
in three books against Damian, Patriarch of Alexandria, [ET] (books
45
6th Century
I and II. 1-5 are lost); and a Treatise against the Tritheists [ET].
36*. Ps.ZACH ARIAS RHETOR (W; late 6th cent.). This
unknown author of an important Ecclesiastical History incorporated
into Books 3-6 of his work an adapted translation of part of an
Ecclesiastical History by the Greek writer Zacharias Rhetor [ET for
Books 3-12]. Books 1-2 contain (among other things) Syriac trans-
lations of the History of Joseph and Aseneth, the Acts of St Silvester
of Rome, the Finding of the relics of St Stephen, the Legend of the
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, and the Letter of Proclus to the Arme-
nians. Books 3-6 (based on Zacharias) cover the years 450-491 ;
Books 7-8 cover the reigns of the emperors Anastasius (491-518)
and Justin I (518-27), while Books 9-12 concern the reigns of
Justinian (527-65 ) and Justin II up to the year 569 (Book 1 1 is com-
pletely lost, and of Books 10 and 12 only fragments are preserved).
37. AHUDEMMEH (W? 6th cent.). The identity of this
Ahudemmeh, author of some short treatises on anthropology, is
uncertain; it is possible, but far from certain, that he is to be identi-
fied as the Syrian Orthodox metropolitan of the Orient by that name
who died in 575, and whose interesting biography survives [FT].
He must have been living in the Sasanian empire, and his anthro-
pology seems to be more influenced by Iranian than by Greek ideas.
Two works are known:
- On the composition of man [FT].
- On man as a microcosm [LT]; this latter work is transmit-
ted with a text of quite different (and probably Greek) origin, by a
certain Antipatros.
38. ABRAHAM of NATHPAR (E; second half of 6th cent.).
Author of several monastic works, the majority of which remain
unpublished.
39. ANONYMOUS LITERATURE (6th cent.).
Mention might be made of the following, all probably be-
longing to the sixth century;
46
Brief outline ot Syr. Lit.
(a) Poetry: Much anonymous poetry is likely to belong to
the sixth century, e.g. many of the dialogue soghyatha, and a beauti-
ful madrasha on Epiphany [ET] .
(b) Prose: Amongst the many anonymous works which prob-
ably belong to the sixth century the following might be singled out:
- *Cave of Treasures [ET], This is a collection of legendary
biblical traditions, addressed to an unknown Nemesius . The work
covers from Creation to Pentecost, a period which is allocated 5500
years, with the end of each millennium specifically indicated. Many
non-biblical traditions, often of Jewish origin, are included, such as
the appearance of Noah's fourth son, Yonton, who is portrayed as
the teacher of wisdom to Nimrod. Though some of its sources go
back much earlier, it is generally thought to have reached its present
form in about the 6th century; the attribution to Ephrem, found in
some manuscripts, is certainly incorrect.
- Three Homilies on Epiphany [FT].
- Three Homilies on the Sinful Woman (Luke 7) [FT].
- Homily on the High Priest (Hebr. 5:7) [FT].
- Life of the East Syrian Catholicos and confessor Mar
Aba (d.552), and Lives of two East Syrian martyrdom, of Grigor
(Piragushnasp) and Yazidpaneh, both put to death under Khosrau
I (53 1-579). These long accounts are of particular interest for
the light they shed on Christianity in the Persian Empire in the
sixth century.
- Life of Ahudemmeh (d.575) [FT], Syrian Orthodox metro-
politan of the Orient and 'apostle of the Arabs'.
47
6th / 7th Century
(cf) 6th/7th cent.
40. BARHADBESHABBA 'ARBAYA (E; fix. 600).
Barhadbeskabba was a professor at the School of Nisibis, originat-
ing from Beth 'Arabaye. Modern scholars have usually distin-
guished him from Barhadbeshabba, bishop of Hal wan, though this
is by no means certain.
- Ecclesiastical History [FT]. This work, in 32 chapters, is
entitled in the single surviving manuscript 'History of the holy Fa-
thers who were persecuted for the sake of truth' . Most of the book
deals with, first, the Arian controversy of the fourth century, and
then the conflict between Nestorius and Cyril over Christology.
Several chapters are in fact short biographies of individual figures,
such as Athanasius, Gregory the Wonderworker, Basil, Diodore, John
Chrysosostom, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Nestorius. The final
two chapters are devoted to Narsai and Abraham (d.569).
41. BARHADBESHABBA of HALWAN. (E; fl. early 7th
cent.). He was bishop of Halwan and a signatory of the synod of
the Catholicos Gregory in 605; though he is usually distinguised
from Barhadbeshabba 'Arbaya, it is possible that they are one and
the same person.
- Book of the Cause of the Foundation of the Schools [FT].
The earlier part concerns 'schools' to be found in the Bible and in
Classical Greece, the School of Zoroaster, that of Christ 'the Great
Teacher' and the Christian Schools of Alexandria and Antioch; the
latter part of the work is devpted to the Persian School of Edessa
and (especially) the School of Nisibis, up to the time of the contro-
versial head of that school, Hnana (of whom the author approves).
The Statutes of the School of Nisibis (496, revised 604) also sur-
vive [ET].
42. SHUBHALMARAN (E; fl. late 6th/ early 7th cent.).
48
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Author of several monastic texts, including one entitled 'the Book
of Gifts ' [ET in preparation] .
43*. BABAI the GREAT (E; c.551-628). He was born in
Beth ' Ainatha in Beth Zabdai, and after receiving his basic educa-
tion there he studied at the School of Nisibis under Abraham of
Beth Rabban. Subsequently he entered the 'Great Monastery' on
Mount Izlafounded in 571 by Abraham of Kashkar (d.588). After
some years he left, to found his own monastery and school in
neighbouring Beth Zabdai. In 604 he returned to the Great Monas-
tery, having been appointed superior, in succession to Dadisho'.
He was strict in his discipline and carried out a number of reforms ;
these were not always appreciated and many monks left (Babai's
Canons survive). On the death of the Catholicos Gregory in 608/9
no new election to the office of Catholicos was allowed by the shah
Khosro II; as a result the Church of the East was administered
during the interregnum (609-628) jointly by the archdeacon of
Seleucia-Ctesiphon, Mai' Aba, and by Babai, who was appointed
visitor of the monasteries. He died in 628, not long after the death
of Khosro II. His surviving works cover Christology, asceticism,
hagiography and liturgy:
Christology:
- Book of the Union. [LT]. 'On the divinity and humanity
(of Christ) and on the prosopon of the union' , in 7 books (memre) .
The seventh book seems originally to have belonged to a separate
work.
- Against those who say 'Just as the body and soul are one
qnoma, so too God the Word and the Man are one qnoma' [LT].
- An exceipt, to the effect that two natures implies two qnome,
is preserved in a later collection of Christological texts [ET].
49
6th / 7th Century
Asceticism:
- Commentary on the Centuries of Evagrius [GTj.
- Commentary on Mark the Monk's work, The Spiritual
Law (unpublished).
- Canons for monks [ET].
- Ascetic counsels (unpublished).
Hctgiography:
- Life of GiwargisMihramgushnasp, martyred in 615, aged
39.
- Martyrdom of Christina (only the beginning survives).
(A number of other biographical works are lost).
Liturgy:
- A number of teshbhata attributed to Babai the Great are to
be found in the Hudra.
Babai the Great is to be distinguished from his contemporary
Babai bar Nsibnaye ('son of Nisibene parents'), who is the author
of some liturgical poems and a monastic Letter [ET] transmitted
under the name of the Catholicos Baboi.
44*. MARTYRIUS/SAHDONA. (E; il. first half of 7th
cent.). Born in Halmon, in Beth Nuhadra. His monastic vocation
was due to the influence of his mother and a local saintly woman
named Shirin. He became a monk at the famous monastery of
Beth 'Abe, and c. 635/40 was appointed bishop of Beth Garmai.
His more Chalcedonian doctrinal position on Christology (advocat-
ing one, not two, qnome in the incarnate Christ) came under criti-
cism at a synod and he was deposed, only to be reinstated shortly
after, but then once again deposed. Though his Christology is deli-
50
m
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
nitely in the East Syrian strongly dyophysite tradition, his
Chalcedonian leanings have resulted in his work being transmitted
only in Chalcedonian tradition.
- The Book of Perfection [FT]: this long work is his great
masterpiece, and one of the finest products of the East Syrianmo-
nastic tradition. The beginning is unfortunately lost. The work
falls into two parts. In Part 1 the first two sections (mostly lost)
dealt with the dogmatic foundations of the moral life of Christians,
while the third and fourth sections provide an introduction to the
'perfect' (i.e. monastic) life, both cenobitic and solitary. Part H, in
1 4 chapters, is devoted to the individual virtues. The strong bibli-
cal basis of the work is very noticeable, and it contains an excep-
tionally large number of biblical quotations.
- Five Letters [FT].
- Maxims on Wisdom [FT].
^ 45.ISHO'YAHBII(E;d.646). Catholicos of the Church of
the East from 628-646, and author of a Letter to a certain Rabban
Abraham on 'How we should confess the sinele prosopon of Christ'
[FT].
46.JOHNoftheSEDRE(W; d.648). Syrian Orthodox Pa-
triarch of Antioch (630/1-648). John acquired his epithet 'of the
Sedre' (d-Sedraw(hy)) from having composed liturgical prayers
known as 'sedre' (he may even have introduced the genre himself).
Besides the sedre (only a few of which can definitely be ascribed to
him) John has left the following works:
-Two 4 plerophoriai'[GT], or doctrinal polemics; one of these
is directed against the followers of Julian of Halicamassus (and con-
tains an extensive florilegium, or anthology of short patristic ex-
cerpts), and the other is against the dyophysites.
51
6th / 7th Century
- Discourse on the Myron [GT].
- An Anaphora [GT].
- A Letter, describing a dialogue with an unnamed Muslim
emir [FT]. This interfaith dialogue is said to have taken place on
Sunday May 9th of an unnamed year; both 639 and 644 have
been suggested, and if either of these is correct, this represents
by far the earliest Muslim-Christian dialogue; it is possible, how-
ever, that the work belongs rather later than John's time.
47. MARUTHA (W; d.649). Born near Balad, he studied
for ten years at the monastery of Mar Zakkai, Kallinikos; later he
was connected with the monastery of Mar Mattai, and was appointed
Maphrian of Tagrit c. 628/9. His Life [FT] was written by his suc-
cessor as Maphrian, Denha (d.660), who lists his writings, only some
of which survive:
- Homily on the Blessing of the Water at Epiphany [ET].
- An account of the 'Nestorianisation' of the Church of
Persia, preserved in Michael the Syrian's Chronicle [FT].
- An anaphora and some prayers are also attributed to him.
48. GREGORY OF CYPRUS (E; first half 7th cent.). Little
is known of this Persian monk from Susiana who spent some time
in Cyprus before returning to a monastery on Mount Izla. Of his
three Letters and seven treatises on the monastic life only the trea-
tise entitled 'On holy contemplation (theoria), which is translated
in Syriac as "divine vision'" has been so far published [LT],
49. ANONYMOUS LITERATURE (early 7th cent.).
- Verse homily on Alexander the Great [ET, GT]; this sur-
vives in several somewhat different forms, and is sometimes wrongly
attributed to Jacob of Seragh, but in fact it must be a product of
52
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
north Mesopotamia and belong to c.629/30, shortly after Heraclius'
successful campaigns into the Sasanian Empire, in the course of
which he recovered the relics of the Cross (which had been taken
by the Persians when they captured Jerusalem in 614).
- Anonymous hagiographical texts from this period include
the Life of the East Syrian Catholicos Sabrisho' (d.604) and the
Life ofFebroniaof Nisibis [ET].
D. MID SEVENTH TO THIRTEENTH CEN-
TURY
Although with hindsight the Arab invasions represent a fun-
damental political break in the history of Western Asia, there is
nevertheless very much a sense of continuity in Syriac writers of
the period.
(a) Second half 7th cent.
50. SEVERUS SEBOKHT (W; d.666/7). Bishop of the mon-
astery of Qenneshre, and one of the most learned men of his time in
the fields of astronomy and philosophy. Several works of his m
both these fields survive, notably treatises on the Astrolabe and on
the Constellations, letters on points of logic addressed to Aitalaha
of Nineveh and to a periodeutes Yaunan, and a treatise on Syllo-
gisms (written in 638); he also translated from Middle Persian a
compendium on logic written by Paul the Persian for the Persian
shahKhosroI(d.579).
51. GABRIEL of QATAR (E; fl.mid 7th cent.). Author of
an important commentary on the liturgy [part ET] .
52. ABRAHAM bar LIPEH of QATAR (E; 11. mid 7th cent.).
Author of a short commentary on the liturgical Offices [LT] .
53. ANONYMOUS (E; third quarter of 7th century). Un-
53
Mid 7th / 13th Century
known author of the Khuzistan Chronicle [LT; ET in preparation],
covering the end of the Sasanian period and the beginnings of the
Arab conquests. It has been suggested that, the author of most of it
is Elijah, bishop of Merv.
54*. ISHO'YAHB MI (E; d.659). Son of Bastomag of
Kuplana (on the Greater Zab), a prominent landowner. He became
a monk at the nearby monastery of Beth 'Abe, and c.627 was ap-
pointed bishop of Nineveh. Some ten years later he was raised to
metropolitan of Arbela, and in 649 he was appointed Catholicos.
Isho'yahb is credited with extensive liturgical reforms, and among
other things he limited the number of anaphoras in use to the cur-
rent three (the Apostles Addai and Man, Theodore, and Nestorius).
- Letters [LTj. The extensive collection of 1 06 Letters pro-
vide a great deal of information on the life of the Church of the East
at a critical time in its history, under the early years of Arab rale. In
the manuscripts the letters are divided into three groups: those writ-
ten while he was bishop (52), those from the time when he was
metropolitan (32), and those belonging to his office as Catholicos
22); in some cases, however, the allocation is certainly incorrect.
- Life of Isho 'sabran, a martyr from the last years of the Sasa-
nian Empire.
55*. ISAAC of NINEVEH (ISAAC the SYRIAN). (E; fl.
end 7th century). Born and educated in Beth Qatraye, he became a
monk and during the catholicosate of George (661-680/1) he was
consecrated bishop of Nineveh (Mosul); five months later he re-
signed and retired as a solitary to the mountains of Khuzistan, where
he was associated with the monastery of Rabban Shabur. Through
the Greek translation of the 'First Part' of his works he has proved
to be the most influential of all Syriac monastic writers, and he
continues to exert a strong influence in monastic circles in the twen-
tieth century, especially on Mount Athos and in the Egyptian desert
54
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
monasteries. The following are his surviving works:
- The First Part' [ET]: this is a collection of 82 discourses
of varying length and character (a few are in the form of questions
and answers or are letters). Most of these discourses were trans-
lated into Greek in the Chalcedonian monastery of St Saba in Pal-
estine probably in the eighth century (the translators' names are
known: Abramios andPatrikios). For some unexplained reason,
five other texts by two other Syriac writers were also included in
this translation under Isaac's name: four of these are by John Saba
(John of Dalyatha), and one is an abbreviated form of Philoxenos'
Letter to Patrikios) . Arabic translations were made from both the
Syriac and from the Greek; the Greek was the source of many other
translations, including Georgian and Slavonic in the Middle Ages,
and numerous other languages in modern times.
- 'The Second Part' [IT + ET]: this contains 42 texts, of
which the third consists of four 'Centuries' of Kephalaia (or 'Head-
ings ' ) on spiritual knowledge . Though there is evidence that this
Second Part was read in Chalcedonian monastic circles, it was never
translated into Greek, and indeed it was only in recent years that a
complete manuscript of the Syriac original has come to light.
- 'Book of Grace' [ET of excerpts]: it is uncertain whether
this work (not yet published) is really by Isaac: it is quite possible
that it is by his contemporaiy Shem' on the Graceful.
56. SHEM'ON the GRACEFUL (Shem'on d-Taybutheh; E;
late 7th century) : He gained fame as a medical doctor in the time of
the Catholicos Hnanisho' (680-700); He subsequently became a
monk and was a disciple of Rabban Shabur. A number of short
writings on the spiritual life survive [part ET, IT]. Among the
topics he covers are: the withdrawal of grace as a result of error;
the three noetic altars according to the teaching of the Fathers; the
faculties of the inner person, and their working; different kinds of
55
Mid 7th / 13th Century
prayer; the structure of the heart and its workings (containing a
physical description as well).
57.DADISHO' (E; late 7th cent). Like Isaac, Dadisho'
originated from Beth Qatraye, and was later connected with the
Monastery of Rabban Shabur. His surviving works include:
- Commentary on the Asceticon of Abba Isaiah [FT].
- Commentary on the Paradise of the Egyptian Fathers,
compiled by 'Enanisho' (unpublished except for a few excerpts).'
- On the Solitude of the Seven Weeks [ET]. This deals
with the theme of stillness (hesychia) during solitary retreats lasting
seven weeks.
- Various other shorter texts on the spiritual life [ET].
58. JOHN/IOHANNAN bar PENKAYE (E; late 7th cent.).
His epithet indicates that his parents were from Fenek, on the Tigris
(E. of Tur 'Abdin). He was a monk, first of the monastery of Mar
John of Kamul, and then of the monastery of Mar Bassima. Later
writers confused him with John Saba/John of Dalyatha. Several
works of his survive (for the large part unedited); of these the most
important is:
- Ktaba d-rish melle, or summary history of the world, in 1 5
books (ET, FT of Book 1 5). The first four books cover from cre-
ation to Herod the Great; book 5 is on demons; 6-8 are largely on
typology in the Old Testament; book 9 concerns cults of pagan
peoples (with some important information on Zoroastrianism); 10-
13 are devoted to the life of Christ and of his disciples; book 14
covers the history of the Church up to the Arab conquests, while the
final book concerns the last decades of the seventh century (for
which period it constitutes a rare contemporary local source).
59. ANONYMOUS (Pseudo-Methodius), Apocalypse [ET,
56
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
GT]. This immensely influential apocalypse was probably com-
posed c.691 in north Mesopotamia; it was soon translated into
Greek, and then into Latin, where it had a great influence on other
apocalyptic writings. Within a brief space it compasses from cre-
ation to the writer's present time when he sees the Ishmaelites (i.e.
Arabs) as heralding the advent of the last times; it is at this point
that the apocalypse proper commences, dealing with the last Ro-
man (Byzantine) emperor, the advent of the 'son of perdition', and
the final victory over him as the Cross ascends to heaven, together
with the imperial crown. The work makes use of a number of
earlier Syriac works, notably the Cave of Treasures, the 'Julian
Romance' and the poem on Alexander.
60.HAGIOGRAPHY
-Life of Rabban bar 'Idta(E; d.612). A prose Life by John
the Persian (third quarter of 7th cent.) is known only in a verse
resume of the 11th cent.[ET].
- Life of Rabban Hormizd (E; 6th/7th cent.). A prose life is
attributed to a monk Shem'on (7th cent.) [ET]; there are also two
much later verse lives.
- Life of Maximus the Confessor (W; d.662). A hostile
monothelete Life [ET] of this dyothelete confessor was probably
produced within a few decades of Maximus' death; according to
this, Maximus originated from Palestine, and not Constantinople
(as stated in the Greek Life).
(b) 7th/8th cent.
61*.JACOBofEDESSA(W; c.640-5 vi708). Born at 'En
Deba in the Antioch region, he studied first under Severos Sebokht
at the monastery of Qenneshre on the Euphrates, and then in Alex-
andria. He was appointed bishop of Edessa c.684, but resigned
57
Mid 7th / 13th Century
owing to the the lax attitude of the hierarchy concerning the obser-
vance of the canons. He retired first to a monastery at Kaisum
(near Samosata), but was subsequently invited to the monastery of
Eusebona where he taught Greek and other subjects for 1 1 years.
The presence there of a group of monks hostile to Greek studies led
eventually to his departure for the monastery of Tell ; Ada, where
he spent 9 years, during which he worked on his revision of the
Syriac Old Testament. On the death of bishop Habbib, his succes-
sor in the see of Edessa, Jacob returned to Edessa again as bishop,
but 4 months later, on a visit to Tell 'Ada to collect his books, he
died. His surviving works are:
- Commentary on the Hexaemeron (six days of creation) [LT].
This learned work, incorporating a great deal of scientific materi-
als, was left unfinished at his death, but was completed by George,
bishop of the Arab tribes.
- Scholia on the Old Testament [part ETJ.
- Liturgical revisions: these include the anaphora of James,
the baptismal rite attributed to Severus, and the consecration of
the water at Epiphany.
- Exposition of the Liturgy.
- Treatise on the Myron [ETj.
- Canons, often in the form of questions and answers [part
ETJ.
- Chronicle; only fragments survive. Jacob covered up to
691/2, and a later hand supplemented up to 709/10. [LT].
- Letters, on a wide variety of learned subjects. A group
of seventeen are addressed to John the Stylite of Litarba.
- A philosophical Enchiridion, or handbook of philosophi-
cal terms.
58
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- A Grammar, of which only fragments survive. Jacob
was the deviser of a predecessor of the present West Syrian sys-
tem of vowel signs.
- An apologia against the Chalcedonian clergy of Harran
(written while he was still a deacon).
- Some verse letters, two of which are addressed to a cer-
tain Qurisona.
Jacob was also a translator and careful reviser of earlier
translations. His translations include the Testamentum Domini,
the Acts of the Council of Carthage in 256 (Jacob's translation is
dated 686/7), and the History of the Rechabites. His revisions
of earlier translation cover Severus' Cathedral Homilies (in 700/
1), and Hymns (often misleadingly know as the 'Octoechos'),
Aristotle's Categories, and several books of the Old Testament;
for the last he combined elements of the Peshitta, Syro-Hexapla,
and at the same time made use of some Greek manuscripts.
62*.GEORGE, bishop of the ARAB TRIBES (W; d. Feb.
724). George was a disciple of Athanasius II, and became Syrian
Orthodox bishop of the Christian Arab Tribes in 686. He is the last
representative of the Syrian Orthodox scholar bishops of the sev-
enth century who were well grounded in Greek scientific and philo-
sophical studies. His surviving works consist of the following:
- the completion of Book 7 of Jacob of Edessa's Commen-
tary on the Six Days of Creation (Hexaemeron), which Jacob had
left unfinished at his death. [LT].
- a revised translation, accompanied by introductions and
commentaries, of the earlier books of Aristotle's logical works
(the Organon).
- scholia on the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus.
59
8th Century
- a commentary on the liturgy (comprising baptism and
the eucharist [ET]; and the myron [GT]).
- a collection of letters. These are of great interest and
deal with a variety of topics, among which are: the identity of
Aphrahat, and his views on the human soul and spirit; chrono-
logical and astronomical matters: difficult passages in the letters
of Jacob of Edessa. [GT].
- a verse homily (memra) on Se veins of Antioch [ET]. A
number of other memre are attributed to George, but there is uncer-
tainty concerning their authenticity (the one on the myron is also
attributed to Jacob of Semgh in some manuscripts).
(c) 8th cent.
63. ANONYMOUS author of 'Diyarbekir Commentary' (E;
early 8th cent.?). A manuscript once in Diyarbekir contains an im-
portant anonymous commentary on Genesis and Exodus 1-9 [FT].
64. SERGIUS the STYLITE of Gusit (W; early 8th cent.).
Author of an apologetic treatise against the Jews [ET].
65. ELIA (W; first half 8th cent.). Author of a Letter, ad-
dressed to Leo of Harran [LT], setting out in 12 sections the reasons
why he left the Chalcedonians and became Syrian Orthodox.
66*. JOHN ofDALYATHA (JOHN SABA). (E; fl. mid 8th
cent.). There has been considerable confusion over the identity of
this monastic writer, but it now appears that John of Dalyatha is the
same person as John Saba (the Elder), but quite different from John
of Phenek. He seems to be been born in N.Iraq and became a
monk in the region of Mount Qardu (where Noah's Ark landed,
according to the Peshitta, following Jewish tradition) . His epithet
'of Dalyatha (the vine tendrils)' probably derives from the name of.
60
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
his monastery. Nothing is known of the details of his life, but his
writings indicate that he was someone with a profound experience
of the mystical life. Four short texts by him were translated into
Greek along with the works of Isaac of Nineveh and so circulate in
Greek (aiufdependent translations) under Isaac's name.
- Letters [FT]: variously numbered as 48 or 51.
- Discourses, or Homilies: again, variously numbered as 25 or 28.
- Kephalaia, or Headings on Spiritual Knowledge.
Only the first of these three groups of texts has so far been
published.
67*. JOSEPH HAZZAYA (the SEER). (E; fl. mid 8th cent.).
His parents were Zoroastrians. At the age of seven he was taken
captive in a raid and sold as a slave, first to an Arab in Sinjar, and
then to a Christian in the Qardu area; there, impressed by the life of
the monks at the monastery of John of Kamul, he sought baptism,
and then, being liberated by his owner, he became a monk m Beth
Nuhadra After a period living as a solitary, he was made superior
of the monastery of Mar Bassima in the Qardu region for a while,
after which he again spent time as a solitary, but was then again
made superior of a monastery (that of Rabban Bokhtisho'). His
brother also converted to Christianity, with the name 'Abdisho,
and many of Joseph's writings were transmitted under his brother s
name In his Catalogue of Syriac writers 'Abdisho' of Nisibis men-
tions numerous works by Joseph, but only a few have survived, of
which the following have been published):
- Letter on the Three Degrees of the Spiritual Life [ET, FT] .
This schematic work, which suivives in alonger and a shorter form,
has often been attributed to Philoxenus of Mabbug m the manu-
scripts, but cannot possibly belong to that writer, and Joseph seems
most likely to be its true author.
61
8th Century
- Shorter texts on different topics of the Spiritual life [ET].
68. ABRAHAM BAR DASHANDAD, 'the Lame' (E; fl.mid
8th cent.). Originating from Beth Sayyade, he became head of the
School of Bashosh, later moving to Marga, and then Mosul at the
Monastery of Mar Gabriel (later, thanks to his fame, known as 'of
Mai- Abraham and Mar Gabriel'). He taught both Timothy I and
Isho' bar Nun. He is author of a monastic letter addressed to his
younger brother, John [ET].
69*. ANONYMOUS author of the Zuqnin Chronicle (W;
fl.c.776). An unknown monk of the monastery of Zuqnin (near
Amid) was the author of an important world Chronicle (sometimes
known as the Chronicle of Ps.Dionysius of Tel-Mahre) [LT + FT].
The earlier parts of the work draw on many different sources; thus
for the biblical period the author makes use notably of the Syriac
translation of Eusebius' Chronicle and an intriguing legend about
the origin of the Magi; for the years 495-507 a local Edessene
chronicle (usually known today as the Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite
[ET; = 25 above]) is incorporated wholesale; while for the sixth
century much is based closely on the lost second part of John of
Ephesus' Ecclesiastical History [ET; = 34 above]. For the eighth
century the author draws considerably on his own knowledge and
experience of events [FT; ET forthcoming].
70* THEODORE bar KONI(E; late eighth cent.). Teacher
at the School of Kashkar in Beth ' Aramaye (near- the Arab city of al-
Wasit). A single work of his survives:
- 'Book of the Scholion' [FT], completed in 792. This con-
sists of 1 1 memre, 1 -9 concern specific questions to do with the Old
Testament (1-5) and New Testament (6-9), arranged according to
the sequence of the books; included within these memre are a num-
ber of sections on philosophical terms, so that the work as a whole
serves as a kind of introductory textbook on theology and philoso-
62
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
phy, taking the Bible as its basis. Memre 10 and 11 are probably
later additions, 10 being an apology for Christianity directed to-
wards Muslims, while 1 1 is an account of different heresies (incor-
porated in this are some important quotations from Mandaean reli-
gious texts). The work comes down in two recensions (which may
represent two successive editions going back to the author).
(d) 8th/9th cent.
71* TIMOTHY I. (E; c.728 - 823). Born in Hazza (in
Adiabene), 12 kms SW of Arbela. His education was put in the
hands of his father's brother, George, bishop of Beth Baghash: he
was sent to the famous school at Bashosh run by Abraham bar
Dashandad. and when Abraham moved first to Marga and then to
the monastery of Mai- Gabriel in Mosul, Timothy followed him.
Probably between 766 and 770 he was consecrated bishop of Beth
Baghash. After the death of the Catholicos Hnanisho' in 778/9 there
were disputes over the succession, and eventually Timothy was
elected (779) and consecrated Catholicos (7th May 780). Some
opposition remained, but in the end reconciliation with the aggrieved
parties was achieved (by c.782). Timothy's extensive collection of
Letters provides some vivid insights into the life of the Church of
the East at the time of some of the most famous Abbasid caliphs .
- 59 Letters are preserved ('Abdisho' mentions the number
of 200). [LT for 1-39]; Letters 42, 44-46, 49-58 remain unpub-
lished] . The collection is not in chronological order. The maj ority
are addressed to his friend and former fellow student, Sergius: 14-
20, 28-33, 37-40, 44 and 49 are 1 addressed to him as 'Sergius, priest
and doctor', while for 3, 5f7, 8, 11, 13,21-25,46-48, 52-55, 57-59
Sergius is styled 'metropolitan of Elam' . The contents of these
may be approximately classified as follows:
■ ecclesiastical affairs: 3-13, 15-17, 21 -25, 27-32, 35, 44-47,
49-58.
63
8th / 9th Century
- availability of manuscripts of translations from Greek
patristic writers: 3, 16-20, 22, 24, 33, 37-39, 43, 47, 49.
- the Hexapla, and the discovery of old Hebrew biblical manu-
scripts near- Jericho, among which are non-canonical Psalms of David
[GT]. (Four of these were translated into Syriac and survive; two
of them correspond to non-canonical psalms in the Psalms scroll of
Qumran Cave XI): 47.
- new translations from Greek into Syriac of Greek philo-
sophical texts (esp. Aristotle, Topics): 43, 48 [ETj.
- a discussion with an Aristotelian philosopher at the caliph's
court: 40 [FT].
- a discussion with the caliph al-Mahdi (775-85), in the
form of a defence of Christianity [ET, FT] .
- on theological topics: 34, 39, 41 (addressed to the monks
of Mar Maron, [FT]), 42.
- on ecumenical relations (doctrines held in common, pri-
macy, the five patriarchal- sees): 26.
- various: 1 (baptism), 2( the soul), 14 (letter of consola-
tion), 19 (anew grammar), 36 (miscellaneous topics).
- A collection of 48 Canons [LT GT] . Timothy may also
have been responsible for collecting together the texts of earlier
synods and their canons into the collection known today as the
Synodicon Orientale.
«
72*.ISHO'BARNUN. (E; c.744 - 1 Apr 828). Bom at Bet
Gabbare on the river Tigris, near Mosul. He studied (along with
Timothy I) under Abraham bar Dashandad. Subsequently he briefly
taught at the School in Seleucia Ctesiphon, but then left to become
a monk at the monastery of Mar Abraham on the mountain of Izla;
later he was active in Baghdad, and then for a long period in Mosul.
64
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
It is uncertain whether he is to be identified as the Isho'dad bar
Nun bishop ofRamHormizd, mentioned in Timothy's Letters. He
was consecrated Catholicos on 6 July 823. His surviving works
(only a few of which have been published) are:
- Select Questions on the Old and New Testaments [ET for
some of those on Pentateuch]. This may be just a selection from a
larger work now lost.
- Juridical decisions concerning marriage, inheritance etc.
[GT].
- A grammatical work.
- Consolatory homilies (fragments only).
- Letters to the periodeutes Ishaq of Beth Qatraye, and to
the deacon Makarios, on liturgical matters.
- Four questions on works of the Solitary Fathers.
(e) 9th cent.
73* JOBofEDESSA(E; fl. early 9th cent.). He is known
to have been born in Edessa, and to have been a contemporary ol
the Catholicos Timothy I (d.823). Hunayn ibn Ishaq mentions him
as a translator into Syriac of works by Galen. The two works by
Job that survive are both scientific in character:
- The Book of Treasures [ET], in six books, covering
metaphysics, psychology, physiology, medicine, chemistry, phys-
ics, mathematics, meteorology and astronomy.
- On Canine Hydrophobia (unpublished).
In the course of the Book of Treasures Job mentions various
other works that he had written, on cosmology, the soul, syllogisms,
the senses, medicine (on urine), and the Faith. None of these,
65
9th Century
however, survive.
74*.JOHN(IWANNIS)ofDARA. (W; flourished first half
of 9th cent.). Nothing is known of his life, except that the Patriarch
Dionysius of Tellmahre (d.845) dedicated his Ecclesiastical His-
tory (lost) to him. Only the first of the works listed below has been
published so far.
- Commentary on the Liturgy, in four books [FT].
- On the Soul.
- On the Resurrection of bodies.
- On Priesthood.
- Commentary on the Celestial and Ecclesiastical Hierar-
chies by Dionysius the Areopagite.
- On Paradise.
- On Creation.
-Against heretics.
- The Resurrection of Christ.
- On Pentecost.
- On the Finding of the Cross.
- On the Divine Economy.
- On Demons.
- On the Doctrine of the Christians.
75*.ISHOT)ADofMERV(E; fl. mid 9th cent.). Bishop
of Hdatta, who was a candidate for the Catholicosate in 852. He is
the author of one of the most extensive commentaries on the entire
Bible, Old [FT] and New Testaments [ET], drawing together much
older material. For the Old Testament part he is the first East Syr-
66
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
ian writer to draw or, readings of Aquila, Symmachus and
Theodotron, to be found in the margin of the Syrohexapla.
76 NONNUS(W; timid 9th cent). Archdeacon of Nisibis;
hi, chief 'fame hay ,n bis successMly combattng Ore ChaWonran
teaching of Theodore Abu Qurra at the court ot the Aimeman
B SkingAshot. AtAshm-.Wtne^Con™^
on John (in Arabic, but based on Syriac sources) wl ic . *asto
translated rnto Armenian (in which it alone survives). Fotu other
theological works, all written in Syriac, are extant.
- Apologetic treatise [LT1. responding to three questions
concerning the Trinity and Incarnation (the standpoint ol the
questioner is uncle ar) .
- A treatise against Thomas of Marga (on whom see 79
below), in 4 books.
- Two letters.
Only the first of these texts has been published.
77* ANTON of TAGRIT (W; probably 9th cent.).
Barhebraeus supposed that Anton (whom he ^™ffi^
ronteraDorary of the patriarch Dionysius ot Tell Mahie (ci.~ Aug.
forte; nevertheless, amnth-century date seems quite likely. His
surviving works are:
- On the Science of Rhetoric, in five books [ET for Book 5].
Anton's states that his aim in writing this important work was to
ferine tne 'who call our Syriac language meagre, narrow, stunted
to far, only Book 5, on metres and on rhetorical figuies, has been
published.
- On Providence (unpublished).
67
9th Century
- On the Myron (unpublished).
- Consolatory letters (unpublished).
- Prayers. Some of these are in verse, and probably con-
stitute one of the earliest pieces of evidence for the use of rhyme.
78*. ANONYMOUS (Ps. George of Arbeia) (E; 9th cent.?).
The name and date of the author of an extensive and important
Commentary on the East Syrian Liturgical rites [LT] are unknown:
he is certainly writing after Abraham bar Lipeh (7th cent.; = 52,
above), whom he quotes, and Isho ; dad IIFs liturgical reforms; on
the other hand, he is certainly not the tenth -century George, metro-
politan of Mosul and Arbela, with whom Asscmani identified him.
The work is divided into 7 books; these cover: 1, the liturgical
year; 2, various liturgical practices (e.g. division of Psalter, use of
the Our Father in different services, on the 'onyata); 3, on Lilya:
on provisions for specific pails of the liturgical year; 4, on the (eu-
charistic) Mysteries; 5, on baptism; 6, on the place of Quddash 'idta
(consecration of the church) at the beginning of the liturgical year, and
on various liturgical practices; 7,onfuneraTandmaniageiites.
79*. THOMAS, bishop of MARGA (E; fl. mid 9th cent.)
- Book of Superiors (Abbots) [ET]. This extensive work for
the large part concerns figures connected with his own monastery
of Beth 'Abe. Of the present six books, Book 6 is a separate earlier
work, mainly concerned with the monastery of Rabban Cyprian.
80. ISHO'DNAH (E; ft c.860). Metropolitan of Prat d-
Maishan (Basra).
- 'Book of Chastity ', or 'History of the founders of monaster-
ies in the realms of the Persians and the Arabs' [FT]. This is a
collection of 140 short notices concerning monastic figures, covering
from Mar Augen (reputedly fourth century) to the mid ninth century."
68
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
81. ANONYMOUS (E; late 9th cent.) author of commen-
tary on Old and New Testaments, of which only the section cover-
ing Gen. 1 - 1 8 has so far been published [ET 1 .
82* MOSHEBARKEPHA(W; b.c.833; d.llFeb. 903).
He was born in Balad (modem Eski Mosul) in N Iraq, and educated
at the Monastery of Mar Sargis (known as 'the Hanging Monas-
tery') in the 'Dry Mountain' some 15 kms NE of Balad. c.863 he
was made bishop of Beth Raman, Beth Kiyonaye and Mosul (i.e.
his diocese covered the area along the Tigris S of Mosul and N of
Taerit) An extensive number of writings survive, in three mam
fields, exegesis, theology, and liturgy; many of these have not yet
been published.
Exegetical:
- Commentary on the Six Days of Creation (Hexaemeron),
in 5 books. [Only pails of the Syriac text have been published, but
there is a complete GT].
- Commentary on Paradise, in 3 books. (This was one of the
earliest Syriac texts to be studied by European scholars, and was
translated into Latin by Andreas Masius in 1569; the Syriac text
remains unpublished). [LT].
- Introduction to the Psalter. [FT].
- Commentary on Matthew, Luke, John, Acts and the
Pauline Epistles. [Only those on John and on Romans have so
far been published, with GT].
Theological (Syriac texts all unpublished):
- On the Soul (41 chapters). [GT only].
- On Resurrection (34 chapters).
- On the creation of angels (45 chapters).
69
^^j
10th Century
- On the hierarchy of angels ( 1 6 chapters).
- On predestination and free will.
- On priesthood (this work is also attributed to John of
Dara).
Liturgical (only the Syriac texts of the second, third, and a few
ol the Homilies are published):
- Commentary on the baptismal rite. [ET].
- Commentary on the eucharistic liturgy. [ET].
- Commentary on the consecration of the myron. [GT].
- Commentary on the ordination rites (for bishops priests
deacons). [LT].
- Commentary on the clothing of monks.
- Commentary on rite for the dedication of a church.
- Commentary on the funeral rites.
- Commentary on the heavenly and earthly priesthood.
- An instruction to the members of the Church.
- A collection of 38 homilies. [ET, FT in part].
- A Book on the Causes of the Feasts.
Several works are known to be lost: a Church Historv a com-
mentary on Gregory of Nazianzus' Homilies, a work against her-
esies, and a commentary on Aristotle's Categories (an excerpt of
the last survives).
(0 I Oth cent.
83. ELIJAH of ANBAR(E; fl. first half of 10th cent.) Bishop
of Anbar (Peroz Shabur), and author of an extensive work in verse
entitled Ktaba d-durrasha (Book of Instruction), or Book of Centu-
ries, in three parts, consisting of 10 memre in all [GT of Part I].
70
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
The content, which could be described as gnomic, is strongly influ-
enced by the Dionysian Corpus.
84*. ANONYMOUS author (W; 10th cent.?) of the Book of
the Cause of Causes [GT]. The author identifies himself as abishop
of Edessa who resigned and retired to a contemplative life; as a
result he has sometimes been identified as Jacob of Edessa, but this
is impossible, as the author clearly lived several centuries later. The
work seeks to be 'a book in common for all peoples under heaven,
on knowledge of truth, how it is known'; it deals with wide theo-
logical problems of the relationship between God and humanity,
and, in a remarkable attempt at inter-faith dialogue, seeks to present
specifically Christian doctrines, such as the Trinity, in a way that
might be acceptable to Jews and Muslims.
85. EMMANUEL bar SHAHHARE (E; 11. second half 10th
cent.). Author of an extensive unpublished verse commentary on
the Hexaemeron (Six days of Creation).
(g) 11th cent.
86. ELIJAH of NISIBIS (E; 11 Feb 975-18 July 1046).
Bora at Shenna (hence sometimes known as Eliabar Shinaya), he
was ordained priest in 994, and studied at the monastery of Mai-
Michael, near Mosul. In 1002 he was appointed bishop of Beth
Nuhadra, and in 1008 as Metropolitan of Nisibis. He wrote prima-
rily in Arabic, but used Syriac in composing a number of liturgical
prayers (still in use). Both Syriac and Arabic feature in two works:
- Chronography [FT, LT]. This important work contains
short excerpts from many earlier sources otherwise lost; much
of it is taken up with elaborate tables.
- An Arabic-Syriac glossary, entitled The Interpreter' , to
facilitate the teaching of Syriac.
71
12th Century
(h) 12th cent.
87* DIONYSIUS BAR SALIBI (W; d.1171) He was
probably born i„ Metitene (Malatya), a meeting pom f „, Grlet
Sir c T e m the iate ] 2th cewury ' ws ^ ™* s
HhM, • T aPP01Med bish0p of Mar-ash (Germanikia)
r f ..own t o p h ::ri ( r s * ^™- sr
suu of Ins generation and a phtloponos tike Jacob of S L
"Z e e° th ^° St ^ ^ TOl — S ^» Orthod writ
us of the twelfth century. His main surviving works are:
- Commentary on the Old Testament (mostly unpublished).
- Commentary on the New Testament [LT].
Dtonysius bar Salibi was the first Syrian Orthodox to provide
a comments on the entire Bible; he draws on a great vaSv o?
mcludmg commentators of the Church of the East) Much of the
commentary on the Old Testament ts arraneed in two sections ft c
tual or materia! (sm rana'it), and spiritual (mhanatit)
- Commentary on the Liturgical Offices [LT],
- Commentary on the Baptismal ltturgy (unpublished).
- Three anaphoras.
- Polemical works against the Muslims (unpublished) Jews
Armemans [ET], Melkrtes [ET], and Nestonans (un V 2sZ).
- Commentary on Evagrius' Centuries.
Lo^Zu mt n ° n ^^ ?S Hsag0ge and on Arist °tle's
Logical works, or Organon (completed m 1 148; unpublished).
- Penitential Canons [LTJ.
72
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Among works by Dionysius bar Salibi which have been lost
are: a chronicle, a treatise on Providence, a compendium of theol-
ogy, commentaries on the works of various Greek Fathers, letters
and poems.
88. ELIJAH in ABU HALIM (E; d. 12 Apr 1190).
Bishop of Maipherqat, then metropolitan of Nisibis, and finally
Cathoiicos (1 176). He wrote in both Arabic and Syriac, the latter
being used for his collection of prayers for the morning Office
throughout the liturgical year (manuscripts containing these are sim-
ply called 'Abu Halim ' ) .
89*. MICHAEL the GREAT (W; d.1199). Syrian Or-
thodox Patriarch from 1166-1199. He was born in Melitene, and
before being elected Patriarch was Superior of the Monastery of
Barsauma in the region of Melitene. Besides revising the Syrian
Orthodox Pontifical and editing the Life of Abhai, bishop of Nicaea,
he is the author of the most extensive of all Syriac world Chronicles
[FT], covering from Creation to his own day. Incorporated into
this massive work are many documents not preserved in other
sources. For the seventh and early eighth centuries he made con-
siderable use of the lost Ecclesiastical History by one of his prede-
cessors as Patriarch, Dionysius of Tel-Mahre (81 8 - 22 August 845).
(I) 13th cent.
90. IOHANNANBARZO'BI(E; late 12th/early 13th
cent.). Monk of the monastery of Beth Qoqa in Adiabene, and one
of the most learned East Syriac writers of his time. Very few of his
writings have yet been edited; these include a verse commentary
of baptism and the eucharist, and various works on grammar and
philosophy, in both prose and verse,
91 . SOLOMON of BOSRA (E; 11. early 1 3th century).
Born at Akhlat on Lake Van at an unknown date, he was already
73
13th Century
metropolitan of Prath d-Maishan, or Basra, in 1222. Although he
also wrote a number of smaller works, he is chiefly famous for his
compilation of biblical traditions entitled the Book of the Bee [ET].
92. GIWARGIS WARDA (E; 11. first half of 13th
cent.). This famous poet, from Arbela, lived in the turbulent pe-
riod of the Mongol invasions, and several of his poems deal with
contemporary events (e.g. On the devastation of Karamlais by the
Mongols in 1 235/6). Many of his hymns were adopted for liturgi-
cal use, and manuscripts containing these are known by the name
• Warda' (Rose). Topics covered are mostly hado graphical or deal-
ing with liturgical feasts . Only 23 of his c. 1 50 poems have so far
been published.
93*. ANONYMOUS (W; fl. first half of 13th cent.).
This unknown author of one of the most important and extensive
Synac world Chronicles, miming from Creation to c.1234 [LT +
FT], probably came from Edessa. The work (which unfortunately
contains several gaps) is in two parts, one devoted to ecclesiastical
matters, the other to secular. Among the sources he uses for the
early biblical period is the Book of Jubilees (not certainly quoted in
any other Syriac writer). For the seventh and eighth centuries much
use is made of the lost Ecclesiastical History by Dionysius of Tel-
Mahre,
94*. JACOB SEVERUS bar SHAKKO (W; d.1241)
Born m Bartella (near Mosul), he studied under the East Syriac
scholar Iohannan bar Zo'bi (at the monastery of Beth Qoqe) and
under a Muslim scholar in Mosul, Kamal al-Din Musa ibn Yunus
(for dialectics and philosophy). He subsequently became bishop of
the monastery of Mar Mattai, with the episcopal name Sevems
His surviving works are:
- Ktobo d-Simoto, 'Book of Treasures'. This theological
compendium is set out in four parts: 1, on the Triune God; 2, on
74
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
the incarnation; 3, on divine providence; and 4, on the creation of
the world (covering angels, stars, geography, natural history, etc.,
ending up with the consitution of the human person and the soul,
antichrist, the resurrection of the body, and the last judgement. The
work remains unpublished.
- Ktobo d-Dialogu, ; Book of Dialogues'. This is arranged in
two books; the first covers: 1 , grammar; 2, rhetoric; 3, poetry and
metres; 4, eloquence and the richness of the Syriac language/ The
second book deals with: 1 , logic and syllogisms; and 2, philosophy
(divided up into five sections: (a) definitions and divisions of phi-
losophy; (b) philosophical life and conduct; (c) physics and physi-
ology; (d) arithmetic, music, geometry, mathematics; and (e) meta-
physics and theology). Only excerpts of this work have so far been
published.
- Two letters written in verse.
- A symbol of faith.
95*. BAR 'EBROYO/ABU 'L FARAJ/BARHEBRAEUS
(W; 1225/6 - 30 vii 1286). Alongside Ephrem, perhaps the most
famous of all Syriac writers. He was born in Melitene and was the
son of a doctor Ahron who has been assumed to have been a con-
vert from Judaism (hence the name Barhebraeus); his baptismal
name was Yuhanon, but he subsequently took the name Gregorius
when he was appointed at a very young age as bishop of Gubos
(1246); he later became bishop of Aleppo (1253), and was eventu-
ally appointed Maphrian of the East (1264). He died in Maragha
(NW Iran). He was a polymath of extraordinarily wide learning in
virtually every subject that was studied in his time. He wrote both
in Syriac and in Arabic, and had a good knowledge of Greek, Arme-
nian, Persian, and perhaps some of Coptic and Hebrew. In his
Ecclesiastical History (11,43 1-486) he has left a considerable amount
of autobiographical information, and this was supplemented after
his death by his brother Barsauma, who also gives a list of his writ-
75
13th Century
ings (another list is to be found in the verse panegyrie on Barhebraeus
by Dioscorus of Gozarto, [= 98, belowj). His extensive sunn ving
writings cover theology, philosophy, ethics, astronomy, grammar,
exegesis, liturgy, canon law, history, and much more. Several of
his most important works have not yet been published. He draws
on Greek, Syriac, Arabic and Persian sources in his various com-
pendia. For several topics he provides works on three different
levels, elementary, intermediary and advanced. His most impor-
tant surviviving writings are:
- Mnorat Qudsho, -Candelabra of the Sanctuary' [FT I-V, VII-
XII; GT VI j . This large-scale theological compendium is arranged
in 12 books (called 'foundations'), with the following titles:
I, On knowledge, straightforwardly.
II, On the nature of the universe.
III, On theology (i.e. on the Trinity).
IV On the incarnation of God the Word.
V On knowledge of the heavenly beings, namely the an-
gels.
VI, On the earthly priesthood.
VII, On the evil spirits, or demons.
VIII, On the rational soul.
IX, On freewill and liberty, and on fate, determinism, and the end.
X, On the resurrection of the dead.
XI, On the end, on judgement, and on the reward of the
good and the evil.
XII, On the paradise of Eden.
- Ktobo d-Zalge. This is his medium-size compendium of
theology, divided up into ten parts:
76
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
I, On the Creation in six days.
II, On theology (i.e. on the Trinity).
III, On the incarnation.
IV, On angels.
V, On evil spirits.
VI, On the soul.
VII, On priesthood.
VIII, On freewill and the end.
IX, On the end of the two worlds, microcosm and macro-
cosm, and on the beginning of the New World.
X, On Paradise [FT].
- 'OsarRoze, ^Treasure of Mysteries' [ET for Pentateuch and
New Testament]. This is more a systematic collection of notes,
rather than a commentary, on all the books of the Syriac Bible. There
is a strong philological and textual interest.
- Ktobo d-Hudoye, 'Book of Guides' (also known as the
Nomocanon) [LT]. This is a collection of Canon Law, arranged
thematically for convenience of use. The work is set out in 40
chapters, the earlier ones concerning ecclesiastical matters, and the
later ones concerning lay affairs (inheritance, business dealings, in-
terest, irrigation rights, theft, homicide etc.).
- Ktobo d-Itiqon, 'Book of Ethics', with the sub-title 'on ex-
cellence of conduct, according to the opinion of the desert fathers
and the tested teachers ' . The work is set out in four discourses, the
first two dealing with exterior knowledge ('the work oflhe limbs),
the last two with interior knowledge ('the work of the heart ):
I (with 9 chapters), on liturgical prayer, manual work, scrip -
77
13th Century
tural reading, vigils, psalmody, fasts, pilgrimage etc. [FT].
II (with 6 chapters), on foods, marriage and celibacy, the
cleansing of the body, the different ages of man, manual work, com-
merce, and almsgiving.
III (with 12 chapters), 'On the purification of the soul from
the base passions'.
IV (with 16 chapters), 'On the adornment of the soul with
excellent qualities' . Barhebraeus' main model and source for this
work was the Ihya 'ulum al-din by al-Ghazali (d. 11 1 1 ).
- Ktobo d-Yawno, 'Book of the Dove' [ET]. This work, in
four chapters, describes the various forms of the ascetic life; the
fourth chapter contains material based on his own spiritual experi-
ences.
- Commentary on the Book of the Holy Hierotheos (a sixth-
century mystical work by Stephen bar Sudhaili).
- Ktobo d-He'wat Hekmto, 'Book of the Cream of Wisdom'.
This is avast encyclopaedia of Aristotelian philosophy, set out in
four books:
I, on Logic, in 9 parts, following the order of Aristotle's logi-
cal works ('the Organon') as studied from at least the sixth century,
i.e. 1, Porphyry's Eisagoge or Introduction; 2, Categories; 3, On
Interpretation (Peri hermeneias); 4, Prior Analytics; 5, Apodeiktike,
or Posterior Analytics; 6, Topics; 7, Sophistics; 8, Rhetorics; 9,
Poetics.
II, on the physical world, in 13 parts.
III, on Metaphysics, in 2 parts.
IV, on practical philosophy (covering Aristotle's Ethics,
78
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Economics, and Politics; also deals with physiognomy).
Barhebraeus makes considerable use of Ibn Sina's
(Avicenna's) Shifa', and (for the fourth book) of al Tusi's Ahlq-e
Nasiri; he also preserves a number of quotations from Greek writ-
ers whose works are otherwise lost. Only excerpts of this impor-
tant work have so far been published.
- Ktobo da-Swod Sufya [FT], 'Book of the Conversation
of wisdom' . This is his middle-sized treatise on logic, the physi-
cal world, and philosophy.
- Ktobo d-Tegrat Tegroto, 'Book of the Treatise of Trea-
tises' . This deals with logic, the physical world, and philosophy.
- Ktobo d-Boboto, 'Book of the Pupils (sc. of the eye)'.
This is a summary introduction to logic.
- Ecclesiastical History [LT]. This is arranged in two parts,
the first dealing with the patriarchs of Antioch and the more
westerly area (up to 1285) , and the second with the area further
east, covering both the Catholicoi of the Church of the East and
the Syrian Orthodox Maphrians. The work also includes an
autobiographical section.
- Chronicle [ET]. This covers, in summary fashion, from
Creation to Barhebraeus' own days. He also made an Arabic
adaptation of this work for the benefit of a Muslim friend.
- Ktobo d-Semhe, 'Book of Splendours' [GT]. This is
Barhebraeus' largest and most important work on grammar.
- Ktobo d-Gramatiqi', 'Book of Grammar'. This is a
grammar written in the seven-syllable metre.
- Ktobo d-Balsusyoto, 'Book of Sparks'. This is a short
grammar.
- Ktobo d-Suloqo Hawnonoyo [FT], 'Book of intellectual
79
14th to 19th Centuries
ascent'. This work, composed in 1279, deals with astronomy.
- Ktobo d-Tunoye Mgahkone, 'Book of amusing stories'
[ET]. This is a collection of short narratives and sayings derived
from earlier sources; much use has been made of a work by
Abu Sa'd al-Abi (d. c. 1030).
- Poems (Mushhoto). Besides the verse grammar,
Barhebraeus wrote a considerable number of poems, among
which the longest is entitled 'On wisdom' .
- An Anaphora.
E. FOURTEENTH TO NINETEENTH
CENTURIES
13th/14th cent
96*. 'ABDISHO'BARBRIKA(E; d. 1318). Bishop
of Sinjar and Bet 'Arbaye, and then Metropolitan of Soba (or
Nisibis). He wrote in both Arabic and Syriac; his suriviving Syriac
works are:
- Nomocanon [LT], or collection of synodical canons, arranged
thematically.
- Rules of ecclesiastical judgements [LT], designed as a hand-
book for use in ecclesiastical courts .
- Marganitha, or 'Pearl', with the subtitle 'the Truth of the
Faith' [ET]. this short and influential exposition of East Syrian
theology was written in 1298.
- Paradise of Eden. This is a collection of 50 poems, first
circulated in 1 29 1 , but later (1316) provided by the author himself
80
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
with a commentary, seeing that he made use of a large number of
rare and obscure words.
- Metrical catalogue of Syriac writers [ET, LT]. This work is
an invaluable source of information, especially about lost works by
Syriac authors. In the course of this work (arranged chronologi-
cally) he mentions a number of his own works which have not come
down to us, notably a commentary on the Bible, a work on the dis-
pensation of the life of Christ on earth, and one on heresies and on
philosophy.
97. KHAMIS bar QARDAHE (E; late 13th/early 14th
cent.). Served as priest in Arbela, and was a prolific poet, writing
both religious and secular verse. Among other things he wrote a
supplement to Barhebraeus' poem on Wisdom. His liturgical po-
etry (especially his 'Onyatha) are transmitted in volumes specifi-
cally entitled 'Khamis'.
98. DIOSCORUS of GOZARTO (W; late 13th/early
14th cent.). Monk of a monastery in Bartelli, he was consecrated
bishop of Gozarto d-Qardu in 1 285/6 by Barhebraeus; author of •
- Verse life of Barhebraeus.
- Anaphora.
99. ANONYMOUS (E). An anonymous writer com-
posed the History of Yahballaha and Rabban Sauma [ET FT] shortly
afterthedeathofYahballahainin 1317. This is a vivid account of
how two monks from China were sent to the west as emissaries of
the Mongol IlKhan, one of whom was elected Catholicos, while
the other (Rabban Sauma) journeyed on to Europe. The author
was evidently an eyewitness of many of the events related while
for Rabban Sauma's journey to Europe he was able to make use of
thelatter's diary, whichhe sometimes reproduces verbatim.
100. TIMOTHYH(E; d.1353). Metropolitan of Mosul,
81
14th to 19th Centuries
and then (in 1318) Catholicos, in succession to Yahballaha
III. - On the ecclesiastical mysteries. The work is in seven
chapters: 1, on priesthood; 2, on the consecration of a church; 3,
on baptism [ET]; 4, on the Eucharist; 5, on monastic profession;
6, on funeral rites; 7, on betrothal and marriage rites.
E. 14th~19th CENTURY
A considerable amount of both prose and poetry continued to
be written in Syriac during these centuries, but so far the literature
of this period has been very little studied by scholars, and only a
small number of writings from it have been published. From the
15th century, mention might be made of the priest Isaiah of Bet
Sbirina(Tur 'Abdin) and his son Yeshu'(W; d.1492); among the
former's poems are several on contemporary events (including the
devastations of Timur Leng, d.1407). To the mid 15th century
belongs Ishaq Qardahe Sbadnaya (E), author of several acrostic
' Onyata and of a 12-syllable poem on the Divine Economy, accom-
panied by a prose commentary containing many quotations from
old writers . From the end of the 1 5th century come Mas 'ud, also of
Tur 'Abdin (W), author of a theological poem entitled 'The Spiri-
tual Ship ' [LT] . Three important poets of the turn of the 1 5th/l 6th
century are the Patriarch Nuh (W; d. 1 509), David 'the Phoenician'
(W) and Sargis bar Wahle (E), who wrote a verse life of Rabban
Hormizd [ET]. The late sixteenth and early seventeenth century
saw the beginnings of written literature in Modern Syriac, and sev-
eral poems in the dialect of Alqosh survive; otherwise, it was not
until the nineteenth century and the influence of the American mis-
sionary press at Urmiah that Modern Syriac (mainly in the Urmiah
dialect) came to be quite widely used as a written language.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several trans-
lations into Syriac were made of classics of western spirituality,
such as The Imitation of Christ attributed to Thomas a Kempis (this
82
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
translation was made by the Maphrian Basil Ishaq Gobeyr (W;
d . 1 72 1 ) . Two outstanding writers in Syriac from this period are the
Chaldean Patriarch Joseph II residing in Amid/Diarbekir (E;
d. 1 73 1 ), author of The Magnet and The Shining Mirror (both widely
read in manuscript), and Metropolitan Basileios Shem'un of Tur
'Abdin (W; martyred in 1740), author of a Book of Theology (1714),
The Ship of Mysteries (verse, on theological topics; 1727/9), The
Armour of Thanksgiving and Hope of Faith (1723, subsequently
translated into Arabic), and many homilies and poems; Shem'un
also compiled a dictionary based on the much earlier one by Bar
Bahlul (late 10th cent.).
F. TWENTIETH CENTURY
The late 1 9th century witnessed a considerable revival of lit-
erary activity in Syriac. One outstanding figure was T'oma Audo,
Chaldean metropolitan of Urmia (E; 1 853-1917), who, amongst
many other things, was the compiler of an extremely valuable Syriac-
Syriac dictionary (1 896; reprinted 1 985). Other notable figures
include the Syrian Catholic Patriarch Rahmani (W; 1848-1929),
the Syrian Orthodox Patriarch Ephrem Barsaum (W; 1 887-1 957),
and Metropolitan Philoxenos Yuhanon Dolabani (W; 1 885-1 969);
it was Dolabani who translated into Syriac Barsaum's important
History of Syriac Literature and Paulos Behnam's drama Theodora,
both of which were originally written in Arabic.
Several writers of the 20th century have used Syriac as a ve-
hicle for secular literature; a pioneer in this field was Na'um Fa'yeq
(W; 1868-1930), who founded the periodical Star of the East in
1 908 . A number of translations into Syriac of western secular lit-
erature has also been made, such as Bernardin de Saint Pierre's
romantic novel Paul et Virginie, translated by Paulos Gabriel (W;
d.1971) and Ghatta Maqdasi Elyas (W) and published (in 1955)
83
Table of Authors
under the title Myatruto ('Virtue'), and Racine's play Athalie (trans-
lated by Abrohom Isu (Baghdad, 1 978). More recent translations
include Machiavelli's Prince (by Gabriel Afram), published in Swe-
den in i 995 . A considerable amount of writing in Classical Syriac,
in both prose and verse, continues today, both in the Middle East
and (above all) in the Diaspora, now scattered all over the world.
APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF AU-
THORS (2nd~!3fh cent)
Century
2nd/3rd cent.
4th cent.
5th cent.
*Peshitta OT
*Diatessaron
*01d Syriac Gospels
*Book of the Laws of the Countries
(School of Bardaisan)
*Odes of Solomon
* Acts of Thomas
Melito 'the philosopher'
Menander sentences
Mara
*Ahikar
*Aphrahat(fl.337-345)
*Ephrem (d.373)
*Book of Steps
Cyrillona
Balai
*John the Solitary
*Anonymous poetry (soghyatha, memre,
madrashe)
* Anonymous prose (hagiography):
Abraham of Qidun
84
5th/6th cent.
6th cent.
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
The Man of God (Alexis)
Edessan Martyrs (Shmona,
Gurya, Habbib)
Teaching of Addai
Legendary Edessan Martyrs
(Bars amy a, Sharbel)
Euphemia and the Goth
Persian Martyrs
Symeon the Stylite
'Julian Romance'
Rabbula
Horn, on Abraham and Isaac
*Narsai (E)
*Jacob of Serugh (W; d.521)
Simeon the Potter (W)
*Philoxenus/Aksenoyo (W; d.523)
* 'Isaac of Antioch' (W)
Symmachus (W)
ANON., Chron. of 'Joshua the Stylite' (W)
Stephen bar Sudhaili (W)
Sergius of Resh'aina (W; d.536)
Simeon of Beth Arsham (W)
Elias (W)
*DanielofSalah(W)
*CyrusofEdessa(E)
Thomas of Edessa (E)
ANON, Chron. of Edessa (W)
*John of Ephesus (W)
Peter of Kallinikos (W)
ANON. Chronicle of Pseudo-Zacharias
Ahudemmeh (W?)
Abraham of Nathpar (E)
ANON., *Cave of Treasures etc.
85
Table of Authors
6th/7th cent. Barhadbeshabba ' Arbaya (E)
Barhadbeshabba of Halwan (E)
Shubhalmaran (E)
*Babai the Great (E; d.628)
*Sahdona/Martyrius (E)
Isho'yahbII(E;d.646)
JohnoftheSedre(W; d.648)
Marutha (W; d.649)
Gregory of Cyprus (E)
ANON. , memra on Alexander trie Great etc.
Later 7th cent. Severus Sebokht (W; d.666/7)
Gabriel Qatraya (E)
Abraham bar Lipeh (E)
ANON., Khuzistan Chronicle (E)
*Isho'yahbIII(E; d.659)
*Isaac of Nineveh (E)
Shem'on the Graceful (E)
Dadisho'(E)
John bar Penkaye (E)
ANON., Apocalypse of Ps. Methodius;
hagiography
* Jacob of Edessa(W; d.708)
*George, bishop of the Arab tribes (W;
d.724)
ANON., 'Diyarbekk- Commentary' (E)
Sergius the Stylite (W)
Elia(W)
♦John of Daly atha/ John Saba (E)
* Joseph Hazzaya/'the Seer' (E)
Abraham bar Dashandad (E)
♦ANON., author of Zuqnin Chronicle
(W; c.776)
♦Theodore bar Koni (E)
7th/8th cent.
8th cent.
86
8th/9th cent.
9th cent.
10th cent.
11th cent.
12th cent.
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
♦Timothy I (E; d.823)
*Isho'barNun(E; d.828)
*Job of Edessa (E)
*JohnofDara(W)
*Isho'dtflofMerv(E)
Nonnus of Nisibis (W)
* Anton of Tagrit(W)
♦ANON., Ps. George of Arbela
♦Thomas of Marga (E)
Isho'dnah(E)
ANON., Commentary on OT, NT
*Moshe bar Kepha (W; d.903)
Elia (Elijah) of Anbar (E)
♦ANON., author of Book of the Cause
of Causes (W)
Emmanuel bar Shahhare (E)
Elia (Elijah) of Nisibis (E; d.1046)
♦Dionysius bar Salibi (W; d. 1 17 1)
Elia (Elijah) III AbuHalim (E; d.1190)
♦Michael I, 'the Great' (W; d.1199)
1 3th cent. Iohannan bar Zo 'bi (E)
Solomon of Bosr a (E)
Giwargis Warda (E)
♦ANON., author of Chronicle to year
1234 (W)
♦Jacob Severus bar Shakko (W; d.1241)
♦Barhebraeus/Bar 'Ebroyo/Abu 'IFarag
(W; d.1286)
13th/14thcent.*'Abdisho' (E; d.1318)
Khamis bar Qardahe (E)
Dioscorus of Gozarto (W)
ANON., History of Yahballaha III and
Rabban Sauma (E)
Timothy II (E; d.1353)
87
*
IV.
PARTICULAR TOPICS
(a) BIBLE
The earliest printed edition of the Syriac New Testament was
prepared by Johann Widmanstetter with the help of the Syrian Or-
thodox priest Moses of Mardin; this was published in Vienna in
1 555. The main subsequent editions of the complete Syriac Bible
(Peshitta) are:
Paris Polyglot Bible (W; 1645); the Syriac was prepared
by the Maronite Gabriel Sionita)
London Polyglot Bible (W; 1657); edited by Brian Walton)
Edition by Samuel Lee (W; 1823)
Edition published by the American mission's press in
Urmiah(E;1852)
Edition published by the Dominican press in Mosul (E;
1887-1892)
Trinitarian Bible Society's edition (E; 1913 and reprints),
edited by Joseph d-Qelayta and based on the Urmiah edition
Edition published in Beirut (E; 1 95 1 ), based on the Mosul
edition.
United Bible Societies Edition (W; 1979). The original
edition is a photographic reprint of S.Lee's edition of both Old and
New Testaments, with the Apocrypha added (handwritten, and prob-
ably based on the Mosul edition, which alone of the earlier editions
includes the 'deuterocanonical' books); in the reprints of 1 988 on-
wards, however, the New Testament text has been taken from the
Brief outiine of Syr. Lit.
British and Foreign Bible Society's edition of the New Testament
(1920).
Old Testament
(a) Peshitta
A critical edition of the Peshitta translation of the Hebrew
Bible is in the course of publication by the Peshitta Institute in
Leiden (the Netherlands). The text is based on a manuscript of the
6th/7th century in the Ambrosian Library, Milan (siglum:7al ), and
the variants of manuscripts prior to the 1 3th century are given in the
apparatus (a few volumes include later manuscripts). The vol-
umes that have been published so far are:
1.1 Genesis, Exodus (1977)
1.2 and II. lb Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Joshua (1991)
Ilia Job (1982)
11.2 Judges, I-II Samuel (1978)
11.3 Psalms (1980)
11.4 I-II Kings (1976)
11. 5 Proverbs, Wisdom, Ecclesiastes (Qohelet), Song of
Songs (1979)
III. 1 Isaiah (1987)
IIL3 Ezekiel(1985)
III.4 Twelve Prophets, Daniel (1980)
IV.3 ApocalypeofBaruch; IV Ezra (1973)
IV.6 Odes, Apocryphal Psalms, Psalms of Solomon, Tobit,
1(3) Ezra (1972).
89
Particular Topics
(b) Syrohexapla
This does not survive complete (parts of -the Pentateuch and
historical books are lost). The following are the principal editions:
A. Ceriani, Codex Syro-Hexaplaris ... (1874); a photolitho-
graphic edition of a huge manuscript of the second half of the
Syrohexapla in the Ambrosian Library, Milan.
P. de Lagarde, Bibliothecae Syriacae.. (1892); contains what
survives of the Pentateuch and historical books.
W.Baars, New Syro-Hexaplaric Texts (1 968); contains ma-
terial additional to de Lagarde's edition.
A.Voobus, The Pentateuch in the Version of the Syro-Hexapla
(CSCO Subsidia45, 1975); a photographic edition of a manu-
script containing otherwise lost parts of the Pentateuch.
(c) ( Syro-Lucianic y
This sixth-century translation from the Septuagint survives
only in fragments and may never have covered more than a few
books; it is very possible that the translation was commissioned by
Philoxenus (alongside the 'Philoxenian' NT), since he specifically
quotes it at one point in his Commentary on the Prologue of John.
The suiviving fragments were edited by A.Ceriani, in Monumenta
Sacra etProfana5 (1875).
Part of another sixth-century translation, of the Song of Songs,
also survives; this combines material from Peshitta and translation
of the Septuagint.
(d) Jacob ofEdessa (d.708)
Towards the end of his life Jacob made a revision of certain
books of the Old Testament, combining materials from the Peshitta,
the Syrohexapla, and his own translation of a Greek Septuagint
manuscript (or manuscripts) . An edition of his translation of the
90
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Books of Samuel, by A.Salvesen, is shortly to be published.
Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical Books
These were all translated from Greek, with the exception of
Bar Sira (Ecclesiasticus), which derives direct from the largely lost
Hebrew original. The standard edition is by P.de Lagarde (1 96 1 ),
but the texts will be found in the Mosul and United Bible Societ-
ies' edition of the Peshitta.
New Testament
(a) Peshitta
The best edition, based on old manuscripts, is that by the
British and Foreign Bible Societies (1920 and reprints); its
text is incorporated into the United Bible Societies' edition of
the whole Synac Bible (1988; see above). This includes the
minor Catholic epistles (2 Peter, 2-3 John, Jude) and the
Apocalypse in an anonymous sixth-century translation (these
books are absent from the Peshitta translation).
(b) Old Syriac
The most convenient edition, with facing English translation,
is by F.C.Burkitt, Evangelion da-Mepharreshe I-H ( 1 904); this gives
in the text the Curetonianus manuscript, and in the apparatus the
variants to be found in the Sinaiticus.
(c) Harklean
The only complete edition of the NT is still that of J. White,
with the misleading title Sacromm Evangelioram...versio Syriac a
Philoxenianal-n (1778, 1799/1803). For recent editions of parts
of the Harklean NT, see (d), below.
91
Particular Topics
(d) Comparative editions
For the Gospels, the texts of the Old Syriac, Peshitta and
Harklean are very conveniently aligned in G.Kiraz, Comparative
Edition of the Syriac Gospels I-IV (1996).
For the Epistles, the texts of the Peshitta and Harklean are
aligned, together with quotations from Syriac writers (and Syriac
translations from Greek texts) in B .Aland and A.Juckel, Das Neue
Testament in syrischer Uberliefemng, 1(1886; Catholic Epistles)-
11.1,(1991; Romans, I Corinthians); II.2, (1995; II Corinthians -
Colossians).
Tools
(a) Concordances
Concordances are available for the following books:
- Peshitta OT. Pentateuch: W.Strothmann(1986); Histori-
cal Books: W.Strothmann (forthcoming); Prophets: W.Strothmann
(1984); Psalms: N.Sprenger (1976); Ecclesiastes (Pesh and
Syrohexapla): W.Strothmann (1973); BenSira: M.Winter(1976)
A complete concordance for the Peshitta OT is in preparation by
the Peshitta Institute, Leiden.
- Peshitta NT. G.Kiraz, A Computer-Generated Con-
cordance to the Syriac NT I- VI (1993).
(b) Dictionaries (NT)
W.Jennings, Lexicon to the Syriac NT (1926);
T.Falla, A Key to the Peshitta Gospels I (alaph to dalath)
(1991);
G.Kiraz, Lexical Tools to the Syriac New Testament (1994).
92
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
(c) Basic introductions
A.Voobus, in Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, Supple-
ment (1976), 848-54;
B.M.Metzger, Early Versions of the NT (1977), ch.l;
P.B.Dirksen, The OT Peshitta, in M J.Mulder (ed.), Miqra
(1988), 255-97;
9;
S.P.Brock, in Anchor Dictionary of the Bible, 6 (1992), 794-
", The Bible in the Syriac Tradition (SEERI Correspon-
dence Course 1; 1989).
(b) EXEGESIS
Several different genres were used for commentaries:
Commentaries on individual books: e.g. Ephrem, John of
Apamea, Daniel of Salah etc.
Commentaries on entire Bible: Isho'dad, Anonymous,
Dionysius bar Salibi, Barhebraeus.
Commentaries on Hexaemeron: Narsai (verse), Jacob of
Serugh (verse), Jacob of Edessa, Moshe bar Kepha,
Emmanuel bar Shahhare (verse).
Verse homilies on episodes: Narsai, Jacob of Serugh.
Scholia: Jacob of Edessa, Theodore bar Koni.
Questions and Answers: Isho'barnun.
Theological: Philoxenus.
Commentary on the Lectionary: Gannat Bussame ('Gar-
den of Delights' ; E).
The main translations of Greek exegetical works in Syriac
93
Particular Topics
translation which survive are as follows (given here in alphabetical
order):
Athanasius, On Psalms;
Basil, On Hexaeraeron; various homilies on particular
passages;
Cyril of Alexandria, Glaphyra (on Pentateuch); Homilies
on Luke;
Eusebius, Questions and Answers on Gospel;
Gregory of Nyssa, Commentary on Song of Songs;
John Chrysostom, Homilies on New Testament (only a
few fragments of those on books of the OT, and of some parts
of the NT, survive);
Theodore of Mopsuestia; Commentaries on Genesis (frag-
ments), Psalms (incomplete), Ecclesiastes, John;
The following gives an approximate chronological table
(and includes some works not mentioned in Ch.II; works by
names in brackets do not survive). There is considerable inter-
action between the E and W Syrian exegetical traditions, and
through Ibn at Tayyib's Arabic commentaries the East Syrian
exegetical tradition reaches the later Coptic and Ethiopian Or-
thodox traditions.
4th CENT. Ephrem
5th CENT. Tr. from Greek WE
Basil, Hexaemeron John of ApameaNarsai Theodore
5th/6th CENT. Jacob of Semgh
John Chrysostom Philoxenus
Eusebius John bar Aphtonia
94
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Athanasius Gregory of Nyssa
Cyril of Alexandria
6th CENT Daniel of Salah(Ahob) (Hnana)
7th CENT. Syrohexapla Jacob of Edessa (Gabriel ot Qatar)
8th CENT.George of Be'eltan Anon, Comm.Gen.-Ex.9
Theodore bar Koni
9th CENT. John of Daralsho'barnun
Moshe bar Kepha Isho'dad of Merv
Anon, Comm.OT, NT
10th CENT
Emmanuel bar Shahhare
11th CENT. Ibn at Tayyib (Arabic)
12th CENT. Dionysius bar Salibi
13th CENT. Barhebraeus Gannat Bussame (Common
Lectionary).
A good introductory guide to Syriac exegetical literature
on the Old Testament is provided by L.van Rompay, in M.Saebo
(ed) Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: The History of its Interpre-
ation, I,i (Gottmgen, 1996), 612-41 [a further instalment will
appear in a later volume]; and in his 'La litterature exegetique
syriaque et le rapprochement des ^™*^?^ f *
syrienne occidentals , Parole de 1' Orient 20 (1995) 221-35 for
Z New Testament a survey is given by ^McCullo^ m
Near East School of Theology, Theological Review 5 (1982),
14-33, 79-126.
(c) LITURGY
Anaphoras
(1) Church of the East: three Anaphoras are in use, the
principle one being that of Addai and Man (or 'the Apostles );
95
Particular Topics
this is the oldest surviving Christian anaphora still in use The
other two anaphoras (both probably translated from Greek) are
attributed to Theodore of Mopsuestia and to Nestorius. There
is a critical edition (with a study) of the anaphora of Addai and
Man by A.Gelston, The Eucharistic Prayer of Addai and Mari
(1991), and of the anaphora of Theodore by J. Vadakkel. The
East Syriac Anaphora of Mar Theodore of Mopsuestia (1989)
Several translations of the three anaphoras exist, e.g K A Paul
and G.Mooken (1967).
(2) Syrian Orthodox (and Maronite): over 70 anaphoras
survive (a list is given in A.Raes, Anaphorae Syriacae I.i (1939),'
xi-xiv; also in Ephemerides Liturgicae 102 (1988), 441-45)'
Attributions are to names from the apostolic times to the middle
ages, and in several cases the attribution may vary in the differ-
ent manuscripts. Some anaphoras are related to anaphoras in
other liturgical traditions; thus the Syrian Orthodox anaphora of
the XII Apostles is related to the Greek anaphora of John
Chrysostom, and the (Maronite) anaphora known as the Sharrar
(or Peter III) is related to the East Syrian anaphora of Addai and
Man. A critical edition of 22 anaphoras, with facing Latin
translations, is to be found in the series Anaphorae Syriacae
(Rome, 1939-); the volumes published contain:
I.i (1939), Timothy of Alexandria, Severas of Antioch-
In (1940) Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, XII Apostles
HI; Lm (1944) DioscorusI-II, Cyril; Hi (1951) Jacob of Serugh
Mil, John Saba; Il.ii (1953) James MI, Gregory John; II iii
(1973) Celestme, Peter III (= Sharrar), Thomas; ffli (1981)
John of Bosra, Jacob of Edessa, Julius. Latin translations of
many other unpublished anaphoras can be found in E.Renaudot,
Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio II (1716, repr.1847, 1970). '
Two current bilingual editions contain quite a large selec-
96
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
tion of anaphoras:
A.Konat (ed.; Pampakuda 1986), Syriac-Malayalam:
James (short), Dionysius bar Salibi I, John Chrysostom [= John
of Harran], John the Evangelist, Mattai the Shepherd, Eustathius
I, Julius, Xystus, Peter II, XII Apostles II, Isaac, Abraham the
Hunter, and one compiled from different anaphoras.
Mar Athanasius Samuel (ed.; Lodi, NJ, 1991), Syriac-
English: James, Mark, Peter II, XII Apostles II, John the Evan-
gelist, Xystus, Julius, John Chrysostom [= John of Harran in
Raes' list], Cyril of Alexandria, Jacob of Serugh I, Philoxenus I,
Severas, Dionysius bar Salibi I.
Baptism
(1) Church of the East. The present service goes back to
Isho'yah III (d.659); a translation can be found in Paul and
Mooken (see above, under anaphoras).
(2) Syrian Orthodox. The present service is attributed to
Severas of Antioch; it exists in two somewhat different forms,
one associated with Antioch, the other with Tagrit. Two other
baptismal services also survive but are no longer in use, one
attributed to Timothy of Alexandria, the other anonymous; these
have several links with the Maronite rite .
There is a bilingual, Syriac-English, edition of the Antioch
rite by A.Y.Samuel (1974), who also published bilingual edi-
tions of the marriage and funeral services (1974); an English
translation of the Tagrit rite (also in use in India) is to be found in
M.Elenjikal, Baptism in the Malankara Church (1974). The
other two old services are translated by S.P.Brock in Le Museon
63 (1970), 367-431 [Timothy], and Parole de r Orient 8 (1977/
8), 3 11-46 [anon.].
97
Particular Topics
(3) Maronite. The service is attributed to Jacob of Seragh
(and indeed there are many parallels with his writings). A pho-
tographic edition of the oldest manuscripts, with French transla-
tion, is given by A.Mouhanna, Les rites de 1' initiation dans l'eglise
maronite (1978); a revised text (of 1942) is in current use.
(4) Melkite. The earliest form of the service, before the
rite was Byzantinized in the middle ages, survives in a few manu-
scripts and is attributed to Basil. A short text with some very
archaic features is also preserved, (ed. and tr. S.P.Brock, Parole
in rOrient 3 (1972), 119-30).
Weekday Office and Festal Hymnary (Hudra/Fenqitho)
(1) Church of the East. ET of weekday office by
A.J.Maclean, East Syrian Daily Offices (1894, repr. 1969). ET
of specific parts of the Hudra are to be found in J.Moolan, The
Period of Annunciation Nativity... (1985); P.Kuruthukulangara,
The Feast of the Nativity... (1989); and V.Pathikulangara, Res-
urrection, Life and Renewal... (1982).
(2) Syrian Orthodox. ET of weekday office (Shehimo)
by Bede Griffiths, Book of Common Prayer of the Syrian Church
(1965); adapted ET by Francis Acharya, Prayer with the Harp
of the Spirit (1980). Adapted ET of Fenqitho by Francis
Acharya, The Crown of the Year I-III (1982-6).
(3) Maronite. ET of Fenqitho, The Prayer of the Faithful
according to the Maronite Liturgical Year I-III (1982-5).
(d) CANON LAW
East Syrian
The most important collection is a vast corpus of some 80
texts whose final redaction has been associated with Catholicos
Elia I (d. 1 049), but which may in fact be somewhat later. The
98
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
texts are arranged in approximate chronological order, and the
most important constituent parts are:
- Pseudo- Apostolic canons (in two collections, of 27 and
83 canons);
- Canons of Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Nicaea, Gangra,
Antioch, Laodicaea, Constantinople I, Carthage, Chalcedon;
- Letter of Marutha and 73 canons [ET];
- Various synodal and other letters;
- Synods of the Church of the East (often known as the
'Synodicon Orientate' [FT, ET forthcoming]); this consists of:
Synod of Isaac (410); Synod of Yahballaha I (419/20); Synod
of Dadisho' (423/4); Synod of Aqaq (485, 486); Synod of
Baboi (497); Synod of Aba (543/4); Synod of Joseph (554);
Synod of Ezekiel (576); Synod oflsho'yab I (585/6); Synod of
Sabrisho ; (596); Synod of Gregory (605); Synod of Giwargis
(George) (676). Some further documents are also included.
- Various monastic rules [ET] ;
- Statutes of the School of Nisibis [ET];
- Legal decisions of Hnanisho' (773-780), Timothy I (780-
823); Isho'barnun (823-28);
- Legal compendia by Simeon of Revardashir (7th cent.),
Isho'bokht (8th/9th cent.) and Abdisho' bar Bahriz (9th cent.);
- Syro-Roman Law Book;
- Various documents of Timothy I;
- Various treatises on inheritance.
Other East Syrian compendia include those of Gabriel of
Basra (884/91), which does not survive complete; the
99
Canon Law
Nomocanon [LT] and Rules of ecclesiastical judgements, [LT]
compiled by 'Abdisho', metropolitan of Soba (Nisibis; = 96
above); and the Book of the Fathers (Liber Patrum [LT]), at-
tributed to the fourth-century Catholicos Simeon bar Sabba'e,
but belonging probably to the 1 3th/ 14th century. An important
East Syrian compendium of canon law was produced in Arabic
by Ibn at-Tayyib (d.1043), entitled Fiqh an-Nasraniya (Law of
Christianity).
Helpful guides to the legal texts of the Church of the East
can be found in A. Thazhat, The Juridical Sources of the Syro-
Malabar Church (Kottayam 1987), and in W.Selb, Orientalisches
Kirchenrecht, I, Die Geschichte des Kirchenrechts der
Nestorianer (Wien, 1981). In French there is a fine survey
article on the canon law of the Church of the East by J.Dauvillier
in Dictionnaire de droit canonique.
West Syrian
Several large collections of canon law survive, of some-
what varying content. One of these manuscripts (Damascus
Patr. 8/11 of 1204) has been published in full under the title
'The Synodicon...' [ET]; among the constituent elements of
this particular collection are the following:
-Apostolic canons;
- Apostolic ordinances through Hippolytus;
- Canons of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra,
Antioch, Laodicaea, Constantinople I, Ephesus I, Chalcedon;
- Canons of John bar Qursos;
- Canons of Rabbula;
- Excerpts from Severus' Letters;
100
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Excerpts from Jacob of Edessa;
- Canons of the patriarchs George, Quryaqos, Dionysius,
John, and Ignatius;
- Texts on various topics, e.g. unlawful marriage and in-
heritance, derived from Muslim law;
- Syro-Roman Law Book;
- Many further excerpts from Severus and others;
- Canons of the monastery of Mar Mattai;
- Canons of John of Mardm for the monastery of Mar
Hnanya (= modem Deir ez-Za'faran, outside Mardm).
Other important collections are the fourth-century
Didascalia Apostolorum [ET] (lost in Greek), which is incorpo-
rated into some of the synodical collections; and the Acts of the
Second Council of Ephesus (449) [GT, ET], preserved in a single
early manuscript. Barhebraeus' Nomocanon provides a collec-
tion of canons arranged thematically.
The best guides to the West Syrian texts are A.Voobus,
Synsche Kanonessammlungen, IA,B, Westsynsche
Origmalurkunde (CSCO 307, 317; 1970),
and W Selb, Orientalisches Kirchenrecht, 2, Die
Geschichte des Kirchenrechts der Westsyrer (Wien, 1989).
101
(e) MONASTIC LITERATURE AND
SPIRITUALITY
It is convenient to distinguish between several different
periods:
(1) 3rd/4th century
In this period the native Syriac ascetic tradition took on
certain characteristics which distinguish it from early monastic
developments at the same time in Egypt; the best witness to this
'proto-monasticism' (as it may be called) is provided by Aphrahat,
Demonstrations 6-7. The consecrated life is lived within the
Christian community, either in common households, or within
the family itself, and not physically withdrawn from it (as was
the case in Egypt), and evidently certain ascetic vows were
undertaken (perhaps at baptism, which in those days normally
took place in adulthood). Two terms in particular are used of
such people, ihidaye and bnay qyama; although later on ihidaya
102
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
came to mean 'solitary', or just 'monk' (translating Greek
monachos), in the fourth century the term had much wider
connotations, notably 'single' (celibate), 'single-minded', and
(above all) follower and imitater of Christ the Ihidaya (the term
which translates Greek monogenes). The origins and semantic
background of the other term, bnay qyama (singular bar/bath
qyama) are disputed and the conventional translation 'sons (i.e.
members) of the covenant' is not certain. It would appear that
the terms ihidaye and bnay qyama both refer to individuals who
live a consecrated life; within this group the bthule/bthulatha,
'virgins' (male and female) are the unmarried, while the qaddishe
(literally 'holy') are the married couples who have renounced
sexual intercourse (the term derives from Exodus 19, verses 10,
15). An important text from the end of this period is the Book
of Steps (Liber Graduum).
(2) 5th/6th century
In this period the indigenous Syrian protomonastic
tradition became absorbed into the mainstream monastic tradition
that originated in Egypt in two different forms, the cenobitic
tradition of Pachomius, and the eremitical tradition of Antony.
In the course of these two centuries Egyptian monastic tradition
gained more and more prestige, and all the mam texts concerning
early Egyptian monasticism were translated from Greek into
Syriac (notably Athanasius' Life of Antony, Palladius' Lausiac
History the Historia Monachorum, and various collections of
Apophthegmata, or Sayings of the Desert Fathers). In due course
memory of the Syriac protomonastic tradition faded away and
was forgotten; as a result of this new origins for Syrian
monasticism were sought out, and the foundation of Syrian and
Mesopotamia monasticism came to be accredited to the Egyptian
Mar Awgen (Eugenius) and his disciples. Also translated into
103
Monastic Lit. & Spirituality
Syriac in this period were many other Greek monastic writings,
notably many works by Evagrius (d.399), the Macarian Homilies,
Basil's ascetic writings, the Letters of Ammonius, the corpus
attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, the Asceticon of Abba
Isaiah, works by Mark the Monk and others.
The earliest Syriac author of this period is John of
Apameia (who seems to belong to the early fifth century).
Though many of his works still remain to be published, John is
emerging as a figure of major importance, both in his own right,
and for the influence he evidently had on the later Syriac tradition
(he is the originator of what became the standard three-fold
pattern of the spiritual life, the stages of the body, of the soul and
of the spirit).
From the 6th century the most important relevant writers
are Philoxenus and Stephen bar Sudhaili in the West Syriac
tradition, and Babai the Great in the East (the mid 6th century
had witnessed a monastic revival, led by Abraham of Kashkar,
in the Church of the East).
(3) 7th/8th century
This is the period of the flowering of the East Syrian
monastic tradition, which produced a large number of famous
authors writing on various aspects of the spiritual life, notably
Sahdona/Martyrius, Isaac of Nineveh, John of Dalyatha (John
the Elder, or Saba), and Joseph the Seer (Hazzaya). In the 7th
century 'Ananisho' collected together into a single volume,
entitled The Paradise of the Fathers, the classic Egyptian monastic
texts; commentaries on various earlier monastic texts were also
provided (notably by Dadisho', on Abba Isaiah's Asceticon, and
on various Apophthegm ata). Several of these East Syriac
monastic texts evidently reached Palestine in the 8th century: the
104
Brief outiine of Syr. Lit.
homilies forming the 'First Part' of Isaac's works (along with a
short form of Philoxenus' Letter to Patricius and four homilies
by John of Dalyatha) were translated into Greek at monastery of
Mar Saba, while works by a number of different East Syriac
monastic authors of this period were read and copied in Syriac
by Chalcedonian Orthodox monks (and survive in the Library of
St Catherine's Monastery, Sinai).
West Syriac monastic authors of this period appear to
have concentrated their energies in different directions: instead
of writing on monastic topics they engaged in translating and
commenting on texts of Greek provenance (biblical, ecclesiastical
and secular). Most famous of these scholar-monks is Jacob of
Edessa (d.708). (It should be remembered that over the centuries
it has normally been monastic copyists who have transmitted to
us the Syriac texts that survive to this day).
(4) 9th century
Two important monastic histories, by Isho'dnah and
Thomas of Marga, belong to this century.
(5) 12th/13th century
This was a period of revived literary activity in Syriac, and
a notable feature is the use of Muslim religious works by some
Syriac writers: thus, for example, Barhebraeus in his Ethicon
makes considerable use of an influential work by al-Ghazzali.
Many relevant texts of this, and later periods, remain
unpublished, let alone studied.
The following are the main relevant authors/works, in
chronological order (numbers in brackets refer to Section III):
c.400
105
Monastic Lit. 8c Spirituality
Aphrahat, Demonstrations 6-7
Liber Graduum/Book of Steps (= 13).
5th/6th centuries
(a) Syrlac writers
John of Apamea (John the Solitary) (= 16).
Jacob of Serugh (= 20), various memre and letters.
Philoxenus (= 22), Discourses, Letter to Patricius, and other
letters.
Isaac of Antioch (= 23), various memre.
Stephen bar Sudhaili (= 26), Book of the Holy Hierotheos.
Sergius of Resh'aina (= 27), On the spiritual life.
(b) Translations from Greek
Evagrius, numerous works
Macarian Homilies
Athanasius, Life of Antony
Palladius, Lausiac History
Historia Monachorum
Apophthegmata/Sayings of the Desert Fathers
Ammonas, Letters
Abba Isaiah, Asceticon
Mark the Monk, various works
'Dionysius the Areopagite' (first translation, by Sergius)
Theodore of Mopsuestia, lost book on 'the Perfection of
106
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
the Way of Life' .
6th/7th centuries
(a) Syriac writers
Abraham of Nathpar (=38).
Shubhalmaran (= 42)
Babai (= 43), Commentary on Evagrius' Centuries; (lost
'Book of Perfection')
Marty rius/Sahdona (= 44), Book of Perfection.
Gregory of Cyprus (= 48).
' Ananisho ', compiler of Book of the Paradise (of Egyptian
Fathers).
Isaac of Nineveh (= 55).
S hem 'on d-Taybutheh (=56).
Dadisho'(=57).
(b) translations from Greek
'Dionysius the Areopagite' (second translation, by Phokas,
late 7th cent.)
John Climacus, The Spiritual Ladder.
8th century
John of Dalyatha (John the Elder/Saba) (= 66).
Joseph Hazzaya (= 67).
9th century
Monastic histories by Thomas of Marga (= 79) and
Isho'dnah(=80).
13th century
107
Monastic Lit. & Spirituality
Barhebraeus (= 95), Book of the Dove, Ethicon.
(Many monastic writings from the 7th century onwards
remain unpublished).
Excerpts in translation can be found in:
S.P.Brock, The Syriac Fathers on Prayer and the Spiritual
Life (Kalamazoo 1987),
A.Mingana, Early Christian Mystics (Woodbrooke Studies
7, 1934).
The following works provide a general orientation:
S.Beggiani, Introduction to Eastern Christian Spirituality:
the Syriac Tradition (Scranton 199 1).
R.Beulay, La lumiere sans forme. Introduction a 1' etude
de la mystique chretienne syro- orientate (Chevetogne
1987).
G.Blum, Mysticism in the Syriac Tradition (SEERI
Correspondence Course 7, 1990).
R.C.Bondi, 'The spirituality of Syriac-speaking Christians',
in B. McGinn and J.Meyendorf (eds), Christian Spirituality.
Origins to Twelfth Century (London 1986), 152-61.
S.P.Brock, 'Syriac spirituality', in C.P.M. Jones and others
(eds), The Study of Spirituality (London 1986), 199-21 5.
" , Spirituality in the Syriac Tradition (SEERI, Moran
Etho series 2, 1989).
A.Guillaumont and I.H.Dalmais, Syriaque (spiritualite), in
Dictionnaire de Spiritualite 14 (1990), 1429-50.
A.Voobus, History of Asceticism in the Syrian Orient (3
vols, CSCO Subs.; 1958, 1960, 1988).
108
Brief outline of Syr, Lit.
P.Yousif , 'An introduction to the East Syrian Spirituality' ,
in A. Thottakara (ed.), East Syrian Spirituality (Bangalore
1990), 1-97.
For the early period (especially 4th cent.) and the distinctive
Syriac 'proto-monastic' tradition the following are helpful:
S. Abouzayd, Ihidayutha: a study of the life of singleness
in the Syrian Orient (Oxford 1 993) .
E.Beck, 'Asceticisme et monachisme chez s.Ephrem',
U Orient Syri'en 3 (1958), 273-98.
S.P.Brock, 'Early Syrian asceticism', Numen 20 (1973),
1-19, reprinted in Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity
(London 1984).
" : v The ascetic ideal: St Ephrem and proto-monasticism',
in his The Luminous Eye (Rome 1985/Kalamazoo 1992), ch. 8.
S.Griffith, 'Singles in God's service...' , The Harp 4 (1991),
145-59.
" v Monks, "Singles" and the "Sons of the Covenant"...' ,
in Eulogema: Studies in honor of R-Taft (Studia Anselmiana
110, 1994), 141-60.
" , ^Asceticism in the Church of Syria. The hermeneutics
of early Syrian monasticism' , in V.L.Wimbush and R. Valantasis
(eds), Asceticism (1995), 220-48).
A.Guillaumont, Aux origines du monachisme chretien
(Abbaye de Bellefontaine 1979).
T.Koonammakkal, 'Early Christian monastic origins. A
general introduction in the context of Syriac Orient', The
Christian Orient 13 (1992), 139-62.
R.Murray, 'The exhortation to candidates for ascetical vows
109
Chronicles
at baptism in the ancient Syriac Church' , New Testament Studies
21 (1974/5), 59-80.
" , v The characteristics of the earliest Syriac Christianity',
in N.Garsoian and others (eds), East of Byzantium. Syria and
Armenia in the Formative Period (Washington DC 1982), 3-16
G.Nedungatt, 'The covenanters of the early Syriac -
speaking church', Orientalia Christiana Periodica 39 (1973), 191-
215,419-44.
C.Stewart, Working the Earth of the Heart: the Messalian
Controversy in History, Texts and Language to AD 43 1 (Oxford
1991). [Of relevance to the Book of Steps].
Many good articles on individual authors of all periods
can be found in the Dictionnaire de Spiritualite. A collection of
some surviving monastic rules can be found in A.Voobus, Syriac
and Arabic Documents regarding Legislation relative to Syrian
Asceticism (Stockholm 1960).
(f) CHRONICLES
Historical writing in Syriac has taken on several different
forms. For World History (beginning with Creation) and for
Church History the models were provided by Eusebius of
Caesarea, whose Chronicon and Church History were both
translated into Syriac (though neither survives in complete form).
The earliest Syriac writer to compose a World History was Jacob
of Edessa (d.708), but of this only fragments survive; for
Ecclesiastical History the earliest Syriac writer was John of
Ephesus (= 34; late 6th cent). Earlier historical writing in Syriac
took the form of local histories, the earliest to survive being the
work usually known today as that of 'Joshua the Stylite' (= 25),
belonging to the early sixth century.
110
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Many Syriac chronicles and other historical works no longer
survive, or are only partially known through their re-use by later
writers. A particularly important chronicle which is now lost is
that of the Syrian Orthodox patriarch Dionysius of Telmahre
(d845) covering AD 582-842; considerable use of it, however,
was made by both Michael the Great (= 89) and the anonymous
author of the chronicle to the year 1234 (= 93), so that a certain
amount of it can be approximately reconstructed.
The seventh century, in particular, produced a number of
apocalyptic texts, where descriptions of contemporary events are
provided with an apocalyptic outcome; notable examples are
the poem on Alexander the Great (= 49), from the late 620s, and
the Apocalypse of Ps. Methodius (= 59), of c.691/2.
- Surviving World Histories (covering from Creation to
the time of the author):
Ps.Dionysius of Telmahre/Zuqnin Chronicle (= 69).
Michael the Great (= 89) .
Anonymous (= 93), Chronicle up to the year 1234.
Barhebraeus (= 95), Chronicon.
- Ecclesiastical Histories:
John of Ephesus (= 34).
Ps.Zacharias Rhetor (= 36).
Barhadbeshabba ' Arbaya (= 40).
Barhebraeus (= 95), Ecclesiastical History.
- Local histories:
'Joshua the Stylite' (=25).
Chronicle of Edessa (= 33).
Ill
Chronicles
[Chronicle of Arbela: great uncertainty surrounds this
work: the editor (Mingana) claimed it as a sixth-century work,
but according to some it could be the work of Mingana
himself; at present the matter remains unresolved] .
Khuzistan Chronicle (=53).
Many shorter, or fragmentary, chronicles also survive. For
monastic histories, see (e) above.
For a general orientation the following are useful:
S.P.Brock, 'Syriac sources for seventh-century history',
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 2 (1976), 17-36, reprinted
in Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity (1984), ch.7.
" , v Syriac historical writing: a survey of the main sources',
Journal of the Iraqi Academy (Syriac Corporation) 5 (1979/80),
297-326, reprinted in Studies in Syriac Christianity (1992), ch. 1 .
L.Conrad, 'Syriac perspectives on Bilad al-Sham during
theAbbasidperiod',inM.A.Al- Bakhit and R.Schick
(eds), Bilad al-Sham during the Abbasid Period: 5th
International Conference (Amman 1991), 1-44.
J-M.Fiey, 'Les chroniquers syriaques avaient-ils le sens
critique?' Parole de l'Orient 12 (1984/5)," 253-64.
P.Nagel, 'Grundzuge syrischer Geschichtsschreibung' , in
Berliner Byzantinische Arbeiten 55 (1990), 245-59.
A.N.Palmer, The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian
Chronicles (1993). [Translations of excerpts with introductions].
J.B.Segal, 'Syriac chronicles as source material for the
history oflslamic peoples', in B.Lewis and P.M.Holt (eds),
Historians of the Middle East (1962), 246-58.
W.Witakowski, The Syriac Chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius
ofTel-Mahre. A Study in the History of Historiography
(Uppsala 1987).
112
Brief outline of Syr. Lit,
■(g) SECULAR LITERATURE
This can conveniently be divided into (1) popular, and
(2) learned.
(1) Popular literature.
Much of this literature is international in character, and
can be found translated into many different languages . Notable
examples are:
- The Story of Ahikar (= III. 10). Originating probably in
the sixth or fifth century BC, this Aramaic story was translated
into Greek in the Hellenistic period; though this Greek version
does not survive, it provided the source for a section, based on
Ahikar, in the extant Greek Life of Aesop; it also served as the
basis for the later translations of the Story of Ahikar into Slavonic.
The Syriac form of the story survives in several slightly different
forms, and it was from Syriac that the other oriental versions
ultimately arrive (Arabic, Armenian, Old Turkish, Modem Syriac
etc.).
- Aesop's Fables. The Fables of Aesop are much older
than the Life of Aesop, and they are transmitted in a number of
different forms. A collection of them came to be translated into
Syriac (ed. + FT, B.Lefevre, 1941), and there the name Aisopos
came to be corrupted into losipos (i.e. Josephus !). The Syriac
in turn served as the basis for a translation into Arabic (where
Aesop now takes on the name Loqman), and back (!) into Greek
(at Melitene, end of the 1 1th century) where the work is attributed
to 'Syntipas' - since it was translated at the same time as the
story of Sindbad (= Greek Syntipas), another popular work,
perhaps of Middle Persian origin.
- Kalilah and Dimnah. This collection of delightful Indian
animal stories (which are preserved in the Pancatantra) was
113"
Secular Literature
translated into Middle Persian (lost) in the sixth century, and
thence (by a certain Budh) into Syriac; this first Syriac translation
is the earliest extant witness to the collection in the Middle East/
West Asia. The Middle Persian text was translated into Arabic
in the 9th century by Ibn al Muqaffa', and from this Arabic
version a second Syriac translation was made (at an unknown
date). The Arabic was also the source for many other medieval
translations, into Persian, Greek, Spanish and Hebrew, and it
was through these translations that the work reached western
Europe in the 16th and 17th century (under the name 'Bidpay' or
'Pilpay'), where it was to enjoy immense popularity. (For translations
of the two Syriac versions, see Section V).
- The History of Alexander the Great, by Pseudo-
Callisthenes, was another text which caught the popular
imagination and so got translated (from Greek) into many different
languages, both oriental and western. The Syriac version (ed. +
EXE.A.W.Budge, 1 889) surprisingly was not translated direct
from Greek, but comes by way of a lost Middle Persian version;
the work gave rise to a number of Syriac works devoted to the
theme of Alexander, notably along apocalyptic poem of the early
seventh century (= 111.49), which is often wrongly attributed to
Jacob of Serugh.
(2) Learned literature
This may concern a variety of different fields, natural
sciences, geography, astronomy, mathematics, medicine,
philosophy, rhetoric etc. It needs to be remembered that many
works in these areas have been lost. Surviving works devoted
specifically to natural sciences are rare (Job of Edessa's Book of
Treasures, 111.73, is exceptional in this respect), and for the most
part these topics (and geography) are dealt with in the course of
commentaries on the Six Days of Creation (Hexaemeron) : thus
114
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
the Hexaemeron commentaries by Jacob of Edessa and Moshe
bar Kepha, in particular, contain a great deal of material relevant
to these subjects. On astronomy works by Sergius of Resh 'aina,
Severus Sebokht and (above all) Barhebraeus survive. In the
Abbasid period (especially 8th/9th century) Gundishapor (Beth
Lapat) was famous for its Syriac medical school, and many
medical works in Syriac were produced at this period, although
only very few of these survive. One particularly influential work
was Hunayn ibn Ishaq's Medical Questions: this work, which is
extant in both Syriac and Arabic, was translated into Latin, where
it was known as the Eisagoge (Introduction) of loannitius, and
has been described as 'one of the most widely diffused early
translations of Arabic medicine' in western Europe.
The first Syriac author to pay serious attention to Greek
philosophy was Sergius of Resh'aina (III. 27), who provided
Syriac readers with introductions to the earlier of Aristotle's logical
works (the Organon), which formed the basis of all higher
education in Late Antiquity. Many subsequent writers dealt
with similar topics, and several provided commentaries, either to
specific books within the Organon (thus Probus, who perhaps
belongs to the 6th century), or to the entire Organon (thus
Dionysius bar Salibi and Barhebraeus). Others, like Severus
Sebokht, Athanasius of Balad and Jacob of Edessa in the seventh
century, provided introductory materials for the benefit of Syriac
readers embarking on philosophical studies. The 1 2th and 13th
centuries witnessed a great deal of activity of an encyclopaedic
nature, covering all areas of human knowledge; many of the
relevant texts still await proper publication and study: remarkably,
this even applies to Barhebraeus' largest and most important
encyclopedic work on philosophy, the Cream of Sciences. (For
translations from Greek, see below).
115
Secular Literature
In the field of rhetoric the main works are by Anton of
Tagrit, Jacob bar Shakko, and Barhebraeus. The standard Greek
grammar of Late Antiquity, by Dionysius Thrax, was translated
(and adapted) into Syriac as early as the sixth century.
Translations
Syriac writers also played a very important role in translating
Greek scientific, medical and philosophical works. This took
place in three main phases: (1) sixth-century translations,
sometimes fairly interpretative in character; (2) seventh- century
revisions, or new translations, usually aiming to reproduce the
original Greek very accurately; and (3) ninth-century translations
(and revisions), usually serving as a stepping-stone to translation
into Arabic.
One of the earliest Syriac writers to undertake this sort of
work was Sergius of Resh'aina who, besides translating the
Dionysian Corpus into Syriac, also translated an influential
pseudo- Aristotelian treatise 'On the Universe', and Alexander
of Aphrodisias' 'Causes of the Universe' (lost in the Greek
original), together with a considerable number of works by Galen.
Various anonymous translations of more popular Greek
philosophical literature of an ethical nature were probably
undertaken in this earlier period: these include translations of
treatises by Isocrates, Lucian, Plutarch, Themistius, as well as a
pseudo-Platonic dialogue on the soul (whose Greek original is
lost), various sayings of Greek philosophers (among them, the
Pythagorean woman philosopher Theano). Also belonging to
this first period will be the earliest translations of Aristotle's logical
works (which formed the basis of higher education in Late
Antiquity and the Middle Ages), together with Porphyry's
Introduction (Eisagoge) to them (these translations have
sometimes been attributed to Sergius, but for not good reason).
116
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
During the second period a number of revised (and more
literal) translations were made of books of the Organon; many
of the scholars engaged in this work seem to have had connections
with the monastery of Qenneshre (on the Euphrates); prominent
among them was the Syrian Orthodox patriarch- Athanasius II
(d.687) and George, bishop of the Arab Tribes (d.724).
The third period (late eighth and especially, ninth century)
witnessed a great flurry of translation activity from Greek into
both Syriac and Arabic, thanks to the general patronage of a
number of the Abbasid caliphs and the growing interest of Arab
scholars in the heritage of Greek philosophy and science. Many
of the earlier translators belonged to one or other of the Syriac
Churches, and frequently they found it more convenient to
translate first from Greek into Syriac (for which there was the
advantage of several centuries of translation experience), and
then from Syriac into Arabic (for which there was no prior
experience). The most famous of these translators was Hunayn
ibn Ishaq (d.c.873), whose translation work covered biblical,
medical and philosophical texts (he was also an author in his
own right).
Since Arabic tended to replace Syriac as a vehicle for
learned secular literature in the Middle Ages, many Syriac
translations ceased to be copied (this seems to apply especially
to those made in the third period); thus it is known from
quotations in Syriac authors such as Moshe bar Kepha, John of
Dara, Dionysius bar Salibi, Jacob bar Shakko, Barhebraeus and
others, that many Greek scientific, medical and philosophical
works must once have existed in Syriac translation, even though
no manuscripts of these survive - or where they do, they are in a
very fragmentary state (this applies, for example, to the Syriac
versions of Euclid and of Theophrastus' Meteorology).
117
Secular Literature
General orientations, and guides to particular topics, can
be found in the following:
S.PBrock, 'Greek into Syriac and Syriac into Greek' , =
ch.2 in SPB, Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity
(London 1984).
" , "From antagonism to assimilation: Syriac attitudes to
Greek learning ' , = ch 5 in Syriac Perspectives .
" , 'Towards a history of Syriac translation technique' , III
Symposium Syriacum (OCA 221, 1982), 1-14, = Studies in
Syriac Christianity (Aldershot 1992), ch.
" , "The Syriac background to Hunayn's translation
techniques', Aram 3 (1991), 139-62.
" , "The Syriac Commentary tradition' [on Aristotle's
Organon], in C.Burnett (ed.), Glosses and Commentaries on
Aristotelian Logical Texts (London 1993), 3-18.
R.Degen, 'Ein Corpus medicorum syriacorum', Medizin-
historisches Journal 7 (1972), 114- 22.
" , "Galen im syrischen', in V.Nutton (ed), Galen:
Problems and Prospects (London 1981), 131-66.
De Lacy o'Leary, How Greek Science passed to the Arabs
(1949).
M.Dols, 'Syriac into Arabic: the transmission of Greek
medicine', Aram 1 (1989), 45-52.
G.Endress, 'Philosphie und Wissenschaften bei den
Syrern' , in H.Gaetje, Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie II
(Wiesbaden 1987X407-12.
H.Hugonnard-Roche, 'Aux origines de 1'exegese orientate
delalogiqued'Aristote: Sergius de Resh'aina', Journal
asiatique 277 (1989), 1-17.
" , N L' intermediate syriaque dans la transmission de la
118
Brief outline of Syr. Lit,
philosophic grecque a l'arabe: ie cas de 1'Organon
d'Aristote', Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 1 (1991), 187-209.
" , "Note sur Sergius de Resh"aina, traducteur du grec en
syriaque etc ommentateur d'Aristote 5 , in G.Endress and
R.Kruk (eds), The Ancient Tradition in Christian and
Islamic Hellenism (Leiden 1997), 121-43.
G.Panicker, The Book of Treasures' [by Job of Edessa],
The Harp 8/9 (1995/6), 151-9.
F.E.Peters, 'The Greek and Syriac background', in
S.Hossein Nasr and O.Leaman (eds), History of Islamic
Philosophy (London 1996), 40-51.
G.Strohmaier, 'Hunayn ibn Ishaq - an Arab scholar
translating into Syriac', Aram 3 (1991), 163-70.
G.Troupeau, 'Le role des syriaques dans la transmission
etFexploitationdupatrimoinephilosophique et scientifique
grec', Arabica 38 (1991), 1-10.
J.Watt, 'Grammar, rhetoric and the Enkyklios Paideia in
Syriac' , Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft
143 (1993), 45-71.
" , "The Syriac reception of Platonic and Aristotelian
rhetoric', Aram 5 (1993), 579-601.
M.Zonta, Fonti greche e orientali delPEconomia di Bar-
Hebraeus nelF opera La Crema della Scienza' , (Naples 1 992) .
119
V.
TRANSLATIONS INTO SYRIAC
A vast number of translations, mainly from Greek, were made
into Syriac, above all during the 5th-9th centuries. The earliest
translations are often quite free (and are sometimes much expanded),
but in the 6th and especially the 7th century a much more literal
style of translation came into favour, and many older translations
were then revised (or sometimes, completely new ones provided);
a further wave of translations came in the late eighth and ninth cen-
turies, as part of the general interest at that time in translating Greek
philosophical and scientific literature into Arabic (often done by
way of Syriac).
The following are the main surviving translations into Syriac
(from Greek unless otherwise stated; * denotes that the Greek origi-
nal is wholly or mostly lost).
2nd cent(?)
3rdcent.(?)
before 411
4th/5th cent.
Peshitta OT (from Hebrew)
Diatessaron (lost, apart from quotations)
Old Syriac Gospels [ET]
Much of OT 'apocrypha'
Clementine Recognitions
*Titus of Bostra, Against the
Manichaeans
*Eusebius, Theophania
*Eusebius, Palestinian Martyrs [ET]
Eusebius, Church History
Josephus, Wars Book VI
120
5th cent.
5th/6th cent.
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
*Didascalia [ET]
Basil, On the Holy Spirit, On the
Hexaemeron [ET], various Homilies
^Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentary
on John [LT]
*Theodore of Mopsuestia, Catechetical
Homilies [ET]
*Syro-Roman Law Book
*Aristeid£s, Apology [ET]
*Evagrius, various works
*Epiphanius, On Weights and Measures
[ET]
John Chrysostom, Commentaries and
various other works
Gregory of Nyssa. Comm. on Song of
Songs, various other works
Gregory of Nazianzus, Homilies (1st
translation)
Athanasius, Life of Antony [ET], various
other works [ETJ
Cyril of Alexandria, various works
Macarius, Homilies [GT]
Ignatius of Antioch, Letters [ET]
Nilus, monastic writings [IT]
Palladius, Lausiac History [ET]
Historia Monachorum [ET]
Apophthegmata (Sayings of the Desert
Fathers) [ET]
Ammonius, Letters [ET]
Abba Isaiah, Asceticon [FT]
121
Translations Into Syriac
Themistius, Lucian, Ps.Plutarch (various
works)
6th cent. Dionysius the Areopagite (1 st translation,
by Sergius of Resh'aina)
*Severus of Antioch, Cathedral Homilies
(1st translation, by Paul of Kallinikos)
*Seveais of Antioch, various other works
Joseph and Aseneth
*Life of Peter the Iberian [GT]
*Zacharias, Life of Severus [FT]
♦Nestorius, Bazaar of Heracleides [ET,
FT]'
Mark the Monk
Kalilah and Dimnah (from Middle
Persian) [GT]
Alexander Romance (from Middle
Persian) [ET]
Porphyry, Eisagoge (1st translation)
Galen, various works (tr. by Sergius of
Resh'aina)
Aristotle, early books of Organon (1st
translation)
7th cent. Syrohexapla OT (tr. by Paul of Telia)
Harklean NT (tr. by Thomas of Harkel)
Basil, Homilies (2nd translation)
*Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on
Luke [ET, FT]
Gregory of Nazianzus, Homilies (2nd
translation, by Paul of Edessa).
*Athanasius, Festal Letters [ETJ
122
4
late 8th/9th i cnt.
llthcent.(?)
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
* Severus, Homilies (revised translation by
Jacob of Edessa) [FT]
*Severus, Select Letters (tr. by Athanasius
ofBalad)[ET]
Porphyry, Eisagoge (2nd translation, by
Athanasius of Balad)
Dionysius the Areopagite (2nd
translation, by Phokas of Edessa)
John Klimakos, The Ladder.
(This was a period of great translation
activity from Greek into Arabic, especially
of philosophical, medical and scientific
works; although the names of many of
the translators are known, the
intermediary Syriac translations of this
period are for the most part lost).
Kalilah and Dimnah (from Arabic) [ET]
Sindbad (from Arabic) [ET]
VI.
SUMMARY GUIDE TO ENGLISH
TRANSLATIONS
The following provides a guide to translations available for
the authors covered in Section III and translations into Syriac men-
tioned in Section V; only where English translations are absent or
inadequate is reference made to translations into other modern Ian -
123
HiliilllilB
Guide to Engl. Translations
guages. The numbers for Syriac authors are those of Section III;
an asterisk in the present chapter indicates that an edition of the
Syriac original is included. Fuller bibliographical details can be
found by consulting the Syriac bibliographies by C.Moss (covering
up to 1960) and S.P.Brock (1960-1990), for whose titles see Sec-
tion VIII.
(4) BOOK of the LAWS of the COUNTRIES (School of
BARDAISAN): *W.Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum (1855), 3-
34, and *HJ.W.Drijvers (1965).
(5) ODES of SOLOMON: *J.H.Charlesworth (1973); a
better translation, by J.A.Emerton, in H.F.D. Sparks (ed.), The
Apocryphal Old Testament (Oxford, 1884), 683-731.
(6) ACTS of THOMAS: *W.Wright(1871); A.EJ.Klijn
(1962), with introduction.
(7) MELITO, Apology: *W.Cureton, Spicilegium
Syriacum (1855), 41-51.
(8) MENANDER, Sayings: T.Baarda, in J.H.Charlesworth
(ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha II (1985), 591-
606 (with good introduction).
(9) MARA, Letter to Serapion: *W.Cureton, Spicilegium
Syriacum (1855), 70-76. Cp K.McVey, in V Symposium
Syriacum (1990), 257-72.
(10) AHIKAR: *J.R.Harris, F.C.Conybeare, A.SXewis,
The Story of Ahikar (1913).
(11) APHRAHAT, Demonstrations: 1,5,6,8,10,17,21,22
in J.Gwynn, in A Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fa-
124
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
thers 11.13 (1898). 11-13, 15-19, 21, part of 23 in
J.Neusner, Aphrahat and Judaism (1971). 2 and 7 in Journal of
the Society for Oriental Research 14 (1930) and 16 (1932). 4
in S.P.Brock, The Syriac Fathers on Prayer and the Spiritual
Life (1987), 5-25. Complete French translation by M-
J.Pierre in Sources Chretiennes 349 and 359; complete German
translation by P.Bruns (1991-2).
( 1 2) EPHREM. The following are the main English trans-
lations available (in chronological order):
- J.B. Morris, Select Works of StEphrem the Syrian (1847).
Includes the only complete English translation of Hymns on Faith.
- H.Burgess, Select Metrical Hymns and Homilies of
Ephrem Syrus (1853); The Repentance of Nineveh (1853).
- J.Gwynn (ed.), A Select Library of Nicene and Post
Nicene Fathers 11.13 (1898). Includes Nisibene Hymns 1-21,
35-42, 62-68; Hymns on Epiphany
- *C.W.Mitchell, Prose Refutations I-II (1912, 1921).
- S.P.Brock, The Harp of the Spirit. Poems of St Ephrem
(1975; selection of 12 poems; 2nd edn 1983; 18 poems).
- J.Lieu, in S.N.C.Lieu, The Emperor Julian (1986, 2nd
edn 1989). Hymns on Julian.
- K.McVey, Ephrem the Syrian, Hymns (1989). Includes
Hymns on Nativity, on Virginity, and on Julian.
- S.P.Brock, St Ephrem the Syrian, Hymns on Paradise
(1990).
125
Guide to Engi. Translations
- C.McCarthy, StEphrem, Commentary on the Diatessaron
(1993).
- E.G.Mathews and J.P.Amar, St Ephrem the Syrian.
Selected Prose Works. Includes Commentaries on Genesis and
on Exodus, Homily on our Lord, and Letter to Publius.
- A.G.Salvesen, Ephrem, Commentary on Exodus (1995).
For further details, consult S.P.Brock, 'A brief guide to
the main editions and translations of the works of Saint
Ephrem', The Harp 3 (1990), 1-29.
(13) BOOK of STEPS: Complete translation by R.Kitchen
in preparation (Cistercian Studies, Kalamazoo), ch.12: in
R.Murray, Symbols of Church and Kingdom (1975), 264-8;
ch. 12 and 18: in S.Brock, The Syriac Fathers on Prayer (1987),
45-59.
(14) CYRILLONA: FT by D.Cerbelaud, Cyrillonas,
L' Agneau veritable (1984).
(15) BALAI: On dedication of church in Qenneshrin,
K.McVey, in Aram 5 (1993), 359-67. (16) JOHN the SOLITARY:
- Dialogue on Soul, FT by I.Hausherr (OCA 120, 1939); ET
by Mary Hansbury in preparation.
- Three Letters, GT by *L.G.Rignell (1941).
- Six Dialogues etc., G.T. by *W.Strothmann (1972); FT
by R.Lavenant (Sources chretiennes 311, 1984).
- Three Discourses, GT (or summary) by *L.G.Rignell
( 1 960) ; ET of no. 1 by [D.Miller] , Ascetic Homilies of St
Isaac the Syrian (1984), 461-6.
126
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Letter to Hesychius, S.RBrock, The Syriac Fathers on
Prayer (1987), 81-98.
- On Prayer, *S.RBrockin Journal of Theological Stud-
ies 30 (1979), 84-101; ET repr. in Ascetic Homilies of St
Isaac the Syrian (1984), 466-8.
(17) ANONYMOUS POETRY: - On Abraham and Sarah
inEgypt, *S.P.Brock, LeMuseon 105 (1992), 104-32.
- On Sacrifice of Isaac, *S.P.Brock, Le Museon 99
(1986), 108-12, 122-5.
- On Joseph, nos 3-4, A.S.Rodrigues Pereira, Jaarbericht
Ex Oriente Lux 31 (1989/90), 95-120.
- On Elijah, *S.P.Brock, Le Museon 89 (102), 106-10.
- Memra on Mary and Joseph, S.P.Brock, Bride of Light
(1994), 146-60.
- Soghitho on Abel and Cain, *FFeldmann, Syrische
Wechsellieder(1896); on Mary and Angel, Mary and
Magi, S.P.Brock, Bride of Light (1994), 111-32; John the
Baptist and Christ, Cherub and Thief, S.P. Brock, Syriac Dia-
logue Hymns (1987); Dispute of Months, *S.P.Brock, Jour-
nal of Semitic Studies 30 (1985), 193-6.
(18) ANONYMOUS PROSE: - (Abraham of Qidun and)
Mary, S.P.Brock and S.A.Harvey, Holy Women of the Syr-
ian Orient (1987), 29-36.
-Man of God, FT by A.Amiaud (1889); ET(ofFT)
by C J.Odenkirchen (1978).
127
Guide to Engl. Translations
- Shmona, Gurya and Habbib, *F.C.Burkitt, Euphemia
and the Goth (1913)
- Teaching of Addai, *G.Phillips (1 876) and * W.Howard
(1981); Martyrdoms of Sharbel and Barsamya,
*W.Cureton, Ancient Syriac Documents (1864), 41-72.
- Euphemia and the Goth, *F.C.Burkitt, Euphemia and
the Goth (1913).
--, - Martyrdom of Martha etc., Brock and Harvey, Holy
Women, 67-81.
82-99.
- Martyrdom of Anahid, Brock and Harvey, Holy Women,
- Symeon the Stylite, R.Doran (1992).
- Julian Romance, H.Gollancz, Julian the Apostate (1 928).
- Life of Rabbula (in preparation by R.Doran).
- On Abraham and Isaac, *S.P.Brock, Orientalia
Lovaniensia Periodica 12 (1981), 225-60.
128
Brief outline of Syr. Li,t.
(19) NARSAI: - memre on Creation, FT by *P.GignOux,
PO 34 (1968).
- memre on liturgy, R.H.Connolly (1908); memra 17,
G.Vavanikunnel, Homilies ...on Holy Qurbana (1977) 55-84;
- memre on dominical feasts, *F.G.McLeod, PO 40 (1979);
- memre on OT topics, *J.Frishman (diss. Leiden 1992).
- memre on Gospel parables, *FT by E.PSiman (1984).
- memre on Three Doctors, FT by *F.Martin, Journal
asiatique 15 (1900), 469-525.
(20) JACOB of SERUGH:
- memre on Virgin Mary, IT by C.Vona (1953); ET by
M.Hansbury forthcoming;
- memre against Jews, FT by *M.Albert, PO 38 (1976);
- memre on dominical feasts, ET by T.Kollamparampil in
preparation;
- memre on Creation, FT by *Kh.Alwan, CSCO Syr 214-
5 (1989);
- memra on the Veil of Moses, S.P.Brock, Sobornost/ECR
3(1981), 70-85;
- memra oh Simeon the Stylite, S AHarvey, in V.L.Wimbush
(ed.), Ascetic Behavior.. A Sourcebook (1990), 15-28;
- memra on Ephrem, *J.Amar, PO 47 (1995);
- prose homilies, FT by F.Rilliet, PO 43 (1986); ET by
T.Kollamparampil in preparation;
- memre on Thomas, GT by W.Strothmann. GOFS 12
(1976);
129
Guide to Engl. Translations
- memra on Melkizedek, J.ThSkeparampil, Harp 6 (1993),
53-64.
- A number of mem re are to be found translated in The
True Vine 1- (1989-); for FT of certain of the Letters, see
the bibliographies cited in Section VIII.
(21) SIMEON the POTTER: S.P.Brock, A Garland of
Hymns from the Early Church (1989), 94-102.
(22) PHILOXENUS:
- Ascetical Discourses, *E.A.W.Budge (1894); FT
E.Lemoine (Sources chretiennes 44, 1956);
- Memre against Habib, LT/FT by *M.Briere and F.Graffin,
PO 15, 38-41 (1920, 1977-82);
- Memre on Trinity, LT by *A.Vaschalde, CSCO Syr 9-
10 (1907);
- Commentary on the Prologue of John, FT by *A.de
Halleux, CSCO Syr 165-6 (1977);
- Commentary on Matthew and Luke, * J. Watt, CSCO Syr
171-2(1978);
- Memra on the Annunciation, GT by P.Kruger, OCP 20
(1954), 153-65;
- On Indwelling of Holy Spirit, S.P.Brock, Syriac Fathers
on Prayer, 106-27.
- Letters (see entries on Philoxenus in the bibliographies
cited in Section VIII.
(23) ISAAC of ANTIOCH:
- Memra on Constantinople, *C.Moss, Zeitschrift fur
Semitistik 7 (1929), 298-306.
130
Brief outline of Syr, Lit.
- Against the Jews, * S.Kazan, OC 46 (1962), 87-98;
- On incarnation, FT by P.Feghali, PdO 10 (1981/2). 79-
102; 11 (1983), 201-22;
- LT of 37 texts (including some madrashe) by *G.Biekell (1 873).
(24) SYMMACHUS: *S.P.Brock, Le Museon 87 (1974).
467-92.
(25) 'JOSHUA the STYLITE': *W. Wright (1882); new
ET in preparation by J. Watt.
(26) STEPHEN BAR SUDHAILI: *ES.Marsh, The Book
of the Holy Hierotheos (1927).
(27) SERGIUS of RESH'AINA: FT by *P.Sherwood,
U Orient Syrien 5 (1960), 433-57; 6 (1961), 95-1 15, 121-56.
(28) SIMEON of BETH ARSHAM:
- 1st Letter on Najran Martyrs, A.Jeffrey, Anglican
Theological Review 27 (1945), 195-205;
- 2nd Letter on Najran Martyrs, *I.Shahid, The Martyrs
of Najran (1971), 43-64;
- Book of the Himyarites, *A.Moberg (1924).
(29)ELIAS: LTby *E. W.Brooks, CSCO Syr 7-8 (1907).
(30) CYRUS of EDESSA: *W.Macomber, CSCO Syr
155-6 (1974).
(33) CHRONICLE of EDESSA: B.W.Cowper, Journal
of Sacred Literature 5 (1865), 28-45; GTby *L.Hallier (1892);
LT by *I Guidi, CSCO Syr 1-2 (1903).
(34) JOHNofEPHESUS:
- Lives of Eastern Saints, *E.WBrooks, PO 17-19 (1923-5);
- Ecclesiastical History, Part III, R.Payne Smith (1860);
131
Guide to" Engl. Translations
LT by *E.W.Brooks, CSCO Syr 105-6 (1935-6).
(35) PETER of KALLINIKOS:
- Memra on Crucifixion, *R. YEbied and L.R.Wickham,
Journal of Theological Studies 26 (1975), 23-37.
- Letter, *R.Y.Ebied, A.van Roey, L.Wickham, Peter of
Callinicum: Anti-Tritheist Dossier (1981), 103-4.
(36) PS.ZACHARIAS: F.J.Hamilton and E.W.Brooks
(1899); LT of whole by *E.W.Brooks, CSCO 38-9, 41-2
(1919-24).
(37) AHUDBMMEH:
- Life: see 39, below;
- FT by *F.Nau, PO 3 (1905), 101-15;
- On man as microcosm, LT by *J.B.Chabot, Notices et
extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale 43
(1965), 70-72.
(39) ANONYMOUS:
- Memra on Epiphany, *S.P.Brock, PdO 15 (1988/9), 169-
96; and in Harp 2:3 (1989), 131-40;
- Cave of Treasures, E.A.W.Budge (1927);
- 3 homilies on Epiphany, FT by *A.Desreumaux, PO 38
(1977);
- 3 homilies on the Sinful Woman, FT by *F.Graffm, PO
41 (1984);
- Homily on the High Priest, FT by *F.Graffin, PO 41
(1984);
- Life of Ahudemmeh, FT by *F.Nau, PO 3 (1905), 7-51.
(40) BARHADBESHABB A ' ARBAYA: FT by *F.Nau,
132
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
PO 9, 23(1913, 1932).
(41) BARHADBESHABBA of HALWAN- FT by
*A.Scher,PO4(1907).
(42) SHUBHALMARAN: ET in preparation by D.Lane.
(43) BAB AI the GREAT:
- Liber de unione, and Against one qnoma. LT by
*A.Vaschalde, CSCO 34-5 (1915);
- Excerpt on christology, *L.Abramowski and
A.E.Goodman, A Nestorian Collection of Christolo* ical
Texts (1972), 123-5;
- Commentary on Evagrius' Centuries. *W.Frankenbere
(1912);
- Canons (surviving only in Arabic translation), * A. Voobus,
Syriac and Arabic Documents... Syrian Asceticism (1960)
178-84;
- Babai of Nisibis, Letter to Cyriacus, S.PBrock, The Syriac
Fathers on Prayer, 138- 63.
(44) MARTYRIUS/SAHDONA: FT by *A de Halleux
CSCO Syr 86-87, 90-91, 110-13 (1960-65).
(45) ISHO'YAHB II: FT by L.R.M.Sako (1983).
(46)JOHNoftheSEDRE:
- Plerophoria, and On Myron, GT by *J.Martikainen
GOFS34(1991);
- Anaphora, GT by F.Fuchs (1926):
- Dialogue with Emir, FT by *F.Nau, Journal asiatique
11:5(1915), 225-79.
(47) MARUTHA of TAGRIT:
133
Quid© to Engl. Translations
- Life of (by Denha), FT by F.Nau, PO 3 (1905);
- On Epiphany, * S.P.Brock, Oriens Christianus 66 (1982),
51-74;
- On spread of 'Nestorianism', FT in *J.B.Chabot,
Chronique de Michel le Syrien Xl.ix (vol. II, 435-40).
(48) GREGORY of CYPRUS: On Theoria, LT by
*LHausherr (1937).
(49) ANONYMOUS:
- Memra on Alexander the Great, E.A.W.Budge (1889);
GT by *G.Reinink, CSCO Syr 195-6 (1983);
- Life of Febronia, S.P.Brock and S.A.Harvey, Holy
Women of the Syrian Orient, 152-76.
(51) GABRIEL OF QATAR: (part) G.Vavanikunnel,
Homilies and Interpretation on the Holy Qurbana (1977), 87-
104.
(52) ABRAHAM bar LIPEH: LT by *R.H.Connolly,
CSCO Syr 29, 32 (1913, 1915).
(53) ANONYMOUS, Khuzistan Chronicle: LT by *I.
Guidi, CSCO Syr 1-2 (1903); GT by T. Noldeke,
Sitzungsberichte, Akad.Wiss. Wien (1893); ET by S.P.Brock in
preparation.
(54) ISHO'YAHB III: LT by R.Duval, CSCO Syr 11-12
(1904-5).
(55) ISAAC of NINEVEH:
-PartI,Wensinck(1923);
- Part II, ch.1-3, IT by *RBettiolo forthcoming; ch.1-2,
S.P.Brock, Sobornost/ECR 19 (1997); ch.4-41, *S.P.Brock,
CSCO Syr 224-5 (1995);
134
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Book of Grace (selections), [D.Miller], Ascetic Homilies
of St Isaac the Syrian (1984), 397-426.
(56) SHEM'ON D-TAYBUTHEH: (selections),
*A.Mingana, Early Christian Mystics (1934): IT by P.Bettiolo
(1992).
(57) DADISHO':
- Comm. on Abba Isaiah's Asceticon, FT by *R.Drasuet,
CSCO Syr 144-5 (1972);
- On Seven Weeks, etc., * A. Ming ana, Early Christian
Mystics (1934).
(58) JOHN bar PENKAYE: (Book 15) S.P.Brock.
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 9 (1987), 51-75 =
Studies in Syriac Christianity (1992), ch.2.
(59) ANONYMOUS, Apocalypse of Ps.Methodius:
P.J.Alexander, The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition (1985), 36-
51; GT by *G.Reinink, CSCO Syr 220-21 (1993); ET of
X.6 to end, S.P.Brock, in A.N.Palmer, The Seventh Century in
the West- Syrian Chronicles (1993), 230-42.
(60) ANONYMOUS, HAGIOGRAPHY:
- Lives of Rabban bar Tdta and of Rabban Hormizd,
*E.A.W.Budge (1902);
- Life of Maximus the Confessor, *S.P.Brock, Analecta
Bollandiana91 (1973), 299- 346 = Syriac Perspectives on Late
Antiquity (1984), ch.12.
(61)JACOBofEDESSA:
- Hexaemeron, *J.B.Chabot, A.Vaschalde, CSCO Syr 44,
48 (1928, 1932):
- Scholia (select), G.Phillips (1864);
135
Guide to Engl, Translations
- On Myron, *S.P.Brock, Oriens Christianus 63 (1979), 20-36;
- Canons, GT by C.Kayser (1886); ET (of some),
*A.Voobus, The Synodicon in the West Syrian Tradition, I,
CSCO Syr 161-2 (1975), 206-47;
- Chronicle, E.W.Brooks, Zeitschrift der deutschen
morgenlandischen Gesellschaft 53 (1899), 261-327, 54 (1900)
10(M02; LT by *E. W.Brooks, CSCO 5-6 (1905);
- Letters (see entry on Jacob in C.Moss, Catalogue [Title
in Section VIII]).
(62) GEORGE of the ARABS:
- Hexaemeron, see (61);
- Comm. on Liturgy, *R.H.Connolly and H.W.Codrington,
Two Commentaries on the Jacobite Liturgy (1913), 11-23;
- On Myron, Letter, GT by V.Ryssel (1891);
- memra on Severus, *K.McVey, CSCO Syr 216-7 (1993).
(63) ANONYMOUS, 'Diyarbekir Commentary': FT by
*L.Van Rompay, CSCO Syr 205-6 (1986).
(64) SERGIUS the STYLITE: *A.RHayman, CSCO Syr
152-3 (1973).
(65) ELIA: LT by *A.VanRoey, CSCO Syr 201-2 (1985).
(66) JOHN SABA/ JOHN of DALYATHA: Letters, FT
by *R.Beulay, PO 39 (1978).
(67) JOSEPH HAZZAYA:
- Letter on Three Degrees, *G.01inder (1950); FT by
*R.Graffin, PO 45 (1992);
- Selections, *A.Mingana, Early Christian Mystics (1934);
(68) ABRAHAM bar DASHANDAD: *A. Mingana,
136
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Early Chrstian Mystics (1934).
(69) ANONYMOUS, Zuqnin Chronicle (Ts.Dionysius'):
- LT of vol.1 by *J.B.Chabot, CSCO Syr 43. 66 (1927,
1949); FT of Vol.11 [= CSCO Syr 53, 1933] by R.Hespel, CSCO
Syr 213 (1989); ET of Vol.1, 235-317 = 'Chronicle of Joshua
the Stylite', see (25) above; ET of Vol. II, 2-145 ,
W.Witakowski(1996); FT of Vol.11, 145-376, FT by J.B.Chabot
(1895); ET of Vol.11 (complete) by AHarrak, forthcoming.
(70) THEODORE bar KONI:
- FT by R.Hespel and R.Draguet, CSCO Syr 1 87-8 ( 1 98 1 -
2) [Syriac text: A.Scher, CSCO Syr 19, 26 (1910, 1912]; FT
(of different recension) by R.Hespel. CSCO , 193 197
(1983-4).
(71) TIMOTHY I
- LT of Letters 1-39, LT by *O.Braun, CSCO Syr 31
(1915); Letter 40, FT by *H.P.J.Cheikho (1983); Letters 43,
48, ET by S.P.Brock (forthcoming); FT by *H.Pognon, Une
version syriaque des Aphorismes d'Hippocrate (1903); Letter
46, GT by *O.Braun, Oriens Christianus 3 (1903), 300-19;
To monks of BethMaron, FT by *R.Bidawid (1956) 91-
125;
- Dialogue with the Caliph Mahdi, ET by *A.Mingana
(1928); FT by H.Putman, LEglise el F Islam sous Timothee
1(1975);
- Canons, LT by *J.Labourt (1904), 50-86; GT by
*E.Sachau, SyrischeRechtsbucher 2 (1908), 53-1 17.
(72) ISHO'BARNUN
137
Guide to Engl. Translations
- Select Questions on Pentateuch, *E.G.Clarke (1962);
- Juridical decisions, GT by *E.Sachau, Syrische
Rechtsbucher2(19()8), 119-77.
(73) JOB of EDESSA: *A.Mingana (1935).
(74) JOHN of DARA: Comm.on Liturgy, FT by *J.Sader,
CSCO Syr 133 (1970).
(75) ISHO'DAD of MERV
- Comm. on Old Testament, FT by *C.van den Eynde,
CSCO Syr 75 (1955) [Gen], 81 (1958) [Exod-Deut], 97
(1963) [BeitMawtbe], 129 (1969) [Isaiah, XII Proph], 147
(1972) [Jer, Ezek, Dan], 186 (1981) [Pss].
- Comm. on New Testament, *M.D. Gibson (1911-13).
(76) NONNUS of NISIBIS: LT by *A.van Roey (1948).
(77) ANTONY of TAGRIT: Book 5, *J.Watt, CSCO
Syr 204 (1986).
(78) ANONYMOUS (Ps. GEORGE), LT by
*R.H.Connolly, CSCO Syr 29, 32 (1913, 1915); ET of Book
V.5 (on baptismal anointings) by S.P.Brock in Tuvaik: Studies
in honour of Jacob Vellian (1995), 27-37.
(79) THOMAS of MARGA: *E.A.W.Budge (1893).
(80) ISHO'DNAH: FT by *J.B.Chabot (1891).
(81) ANONYMOUS COMMENTATOR: On Gen 1-18:
*A.Levene, Early Syrian Fathers on Genesis (195 1).
(82) MOSHE bar KEPHA
- Comm. on Hexaemeron, GT by L.Schlimme (1977);
- On Paradise, LTm Patrologia Graeca lll,cols.479-608;
138
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Introduction to Psalter, GT by *G.Diettrich, Eine
jakobitische Einleiting..(1901 ); FT by J-M. Voste, Revue
biblique 38 (1929), 214-28;
- Comm. on John, GT by ^L.Schlimme (1978-81);
- Comm. on Romans, GT by *J.Reller (1994);
- On Soul, GT by O.Braun (1891);
Two
Comm. on Liturgy, *R.H.Connolly and H.W.Codrington,
Commentaries.. (1913), 24-90;
- Comm. on Baptism, R.A.Aytoun, repr. in J. Vellian (ed).
Studies on Syrian Baptismal Rites (1973), 7-15;
- Comm. on Myron, GT by *W.Slrothmann (1973).
- Homilies (see Moss, Catalogue... [title in VHIg]).
(83) ELIJAH of ANBAR: Memre I-III, GT by *AJuekel.
CSCO Syr 227 (1996).
(84) ANONYMOUS, Causa Causarum: GT by C.Kayser
(1893).
(86) ELIJAH of NISIBIS
- Chronicle, LT by *E. W.Brooks, CSCO Syr 23-4 (1910);
FTbyL-J.Delaporte (1910).
(87) DIONYSIUS bar SALIBI
- Comm. on Liturgy, LT by H.Labourt, CSCO Syr 14
(1903).
- Comm. on Old Testament (see Moss, Catalogue...).
- Comm. on New Testament, LT by *LSedlacek, J-
B.Chabot, CSCO 16 (1906) [Gospels, Li], 20 (1910) [Apoc,
Acts, Catholic Epistles], 40 (1922) [Gospels, I.ii];
139
Guide to Engl. Translations
*A.Vaschalde. CSCO 40 (1933) [Gospels, Il.i], 61 (1940)
[Gospels. ILii];
- AgainstMelkitcs, Against Armenians, *AJVfingana(1927, 1931);
- Canons, LT by H.Denzinger, Ritus Orientalium (1863),
I, 493-.
(89) MICHAEL the SYRIAN: FT by *J-B.Chabot (1899-
24, repr.1963).
(91) SOLOMON of BOSRA: *E.A.W.Budge (1886).
(93) ANONYMOUS, Chronicle, LT of vol.1 by *J-
B.Chabot, CSCO Syr 56 (1937) [Syriac in CSCO Syr 36
(1920)]; FT of vol.11 by A.Abouna and J-M.Fiey, CSCO Syr 154
(1974) [Syriac in CSCO Syr 37 (1916)].
(95) BARHEBRAEUS
- Candelabra, I, FT by *J.Bakos, PO 22; II, FT by
*J.Bakos. PO 24; III, FT by *F.Graffin, PO 27; IV, FT by
♦J.Khoury. PO 31: V, GT by *R.Kohlhaas (1959); VI, FT by
*A.Torbey, PO 30; VII, FT by *M.Albert, PO 30; VIII, FT by
*J.Bakos (1948); IX, FT by *P-H.Poirier, PO 43; X, FT
by *E.Zigmund, PO 35; XI, FT by *N.Sed, PO 41; XII,
FT by *N.Sed, PO 40;
- Zalge, X, FT by *N.Sed, PO 41;
- 'Osar Raze, Gen - 2 Sam, *M.Sprengling and
W.C.Graham (1931); Gospels, *W.E.Carr (1925);
- Nomocanon, LT by A.Mai, Scriptorum Veterum Nova
Collectio 10:2 (1838), 1-268;
-Ethicon,Memral,FTby*H.Teule,CSCOSyr218-219(1993);
- Book of the Dove, *AJ.Wensink (1919);
140
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Swad Sofiya, FT by *H.FJanssens (1937);
- Ecclesiastical History, LT by J.Abbeloos and T J Lamy
(1872-7);
- Chronicle, *E.A.W.Budge (1932);
- Semhe, GT by *A.Moberg (1907-13);
- Sullaqa hawnanaya, FT by *F.Nau (1899-1900);
- Laughable Stories, *E.A.W.Budge (1897).
(96) 'ABDISHO'
- Nomocanon, LT by A.Mai, Scriptorum Veterum Nova
Collectio 10:1 (1838), 1-331;
- Ordo Iudiciorum Ecclesiasticorum, LT by J-M Voste
(1940).
- Pearl, P.Badger, The Nestorians and their Rituals, II
(1852), 380-422;
- Catalogue of Syriac writers, P.Badger. The Nestorians
II, 361-79.
(99) ANONYMOUS, History of Rabban Sauma and
Yahballahalll: E.A.W.Budge, The Monks of Kublai Khan
(1928); FTbyJ.B.Chabot(1895).
(100) TIMOTHY II
- Comm. on Baptismal liturgy, *P.B.Kadicheeni (1980).
ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF WORKS
TRANSLATED INTO SYRIAC
(the sequence follows the chronological order given in Section V)
- Old Syriac Gospels: *F.C.Burkitt (1904).
- Eusebius, Palestinian Martyrs: *W.Curelon (1861).
141
Guide to Engl. Translations
-Didascalia: R.H.Connolly (1929); *A.Voobus, CSCO
Syr 175-6, 179-80 (1979).
- Basil, Hexaemeron: *R.WThomson, CSCO Syr 222-3 (1995).
- Theodore of Mopsuestia, Comm. on John: LT by *I-
M.Voste, CSCO Syr 62-3 (1940).
- Theodore of Mopsuestia, Catechetical Homilies:
*A.Mingana, Woodbrooke Studies 5-6 (1932-3); FT by
*R.Tonneau (1949), and by M.Debie and others (1996); GT by
RBruns (1995).
- Arisieides, Apology: *J.R.Harris (1891).
- Epiphanius, On Weights and Measures: J.E.Dean (1935).
- Athanasius, Life of Antony: *E. AW.Budge, Paradise
of the Fathers (1904); FT by *R.Draguet CSCO 183-4(1980).
- Athanasius, various works: *R. W.Thomson, CSCO Syr
114-5, 118-9, 141-2, 167-8 (1965-77).
- Macarius, Homilies: GT by *W.Strothmann (1981).
- Ignatius of Antioch: *W.Cureton (1849).
- Nilus: IT by *P.Bettiolo (1983).
- Palladius, Lausiac History:
- HistoriaMonachorum: *E.A.W.Budge, Paradise of the
Fathers (1904).
- Apophthegmata/Sayings of the Fathers:
- Ammonius, Letters: D.J.Chitty (1979).
- Abba Isaiah, Asceticon: FT by *R.Draguet, CSCO Syr
120-3 (1968).
- Severus, Correspondence with Sergius: IRTorrance (1 988).
142
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
- Life of Peter the Iberian: GT by *R.Raabe (1895).
- Zacharias, Life of Severus: FT by *M A Kueener PO 2
(1904).
- Nestorius, Bazaar of Heracleides: G.R.Driver and
L.Hodgson (1925); FT by F.Nau (1910).
- Kalilah and Dimnah (earlier version) : GT by *F.Schultess ( 1 9 1 1 ).
- Ps.Callisthenes, Alexander: *E.A.W.Budge (1889).
- Cyril of Alexandria, Homilies on Luke: R. Payne Smith ( 1 869).
- Severus, Hymns: *E. W.Brooks, PO 6-7 (1910-11).
- Athanasius, Festal Letters: *W.Cureton ( 1 848).
- Severus, Select Letters: *E. W.Brooks (1902-4). and PO
12,14(1919-20).
- Severus, Homilies (tr. Jacob of Edessa): FT by *M Briere
F.Graffin, PO 4,8,12, 16,20, 22, 23, 25,29, 36-38 (1906-77). '
-Kalilah and Dimnah Gaterversion): LG.N.Keith-Falconer(1885).
- Sindbad: H.Gollancz, in Transactions of the Folklore
Society 8 (1897), 99-130; FT by F.Macler (1903).
143
VIII.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
For the most part the following is largely restricted to works
in English.
(a) Introductions to Syrlac literature
An initial orientation is given by S.P.Brock, 'An
introduction to Syriac Studies', in J.H. Eaton (ed.), Horizons in
Semitic Studies (Birmingham/Sheffield 1980), 1-33; much
more detailed introductory guidance can be found in the chapters
on Syriac literature in two very useful handbooks: (1) by
M.Albert in A.Guillaumont and others, Christianismes orientaux
(Paris 1993), 297-372; and (2) by P.Bettiolo, in A.Quacqarelli
(ed), Complement! interdisciplinari di Patrologia (Rome 1989),
503-603. Introductory booklets covering various aspects of
Syriac studies are available as part of SEERI's Correspondence
Course [1990].
The standard histories of Syriac literature in western
languages are (in chronological order):
- J.S.Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis (3 vols, Rome 1719-
28; repr. Hildesheim 1975). This monumental work (by a
Maronite scholar) provided the foundation for all subsequent
histories of Syriac literature, and although much is now out of
date, it remains the sole source for a great deal of basic
information.
- W.Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature (London
1 894). Wright had an extensive knowledge of Syriac literature
as a result of his having catalogued the large collection of Syriac
manuscripts in the British Museum, and this still remains a useful
292
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
book for the more advanced student of the subject; it is not
suitable, however, as an introductory work.
- R.Duval, La litterature syriaque (3rd ed. Paris 1907);
this remains the best general introduction.
- De Lacy O'Leary, The Syriac Church and Fathers
(London 1909). A summary treatment, and rather outdated.
- A.Baumstark, Die christlichen Literaturen des Ostens, I
(Leipzig 1911). The section on Syriac literature is a helpful general
orientation, and much more readable than the following work.
- A.Baumstark, Geschichte der syrischen Literatur (Bonn
1922). This remains the standard work, indispensible for all
serious study of the subject; it has by far the most detailed
coverage (including details of manuscripts), but the presentation
and cramped German style makes for difficult reading (indeed,
it is primarily a work for reference, rather than continuous
reading).
- J.B.Chabot, La litterature syriaque (Paris 1934). Much
shorter than Duval, but a useful introductory work by a scholar
who had an exceptionally wide knowledge of Syriac literature.
- A.Baumstark and A.Rucker, in Handbuch der
Orientalistik III, Semitistik (Leiden 1954), 169-204. Useful, but
inevitably rather selective.
- I. Ortiz de Urbina, Patrologia Syriaca (2nd ed. Rome
1965). This Latin handbook is an extremely useful work of
reference; it is clearly set out and has succinct (but now often
outdated) bibliographies. A French translation (by R.Lavenant),
bringing it up to date, has been promised.
- R.Macuch, Geschichte der spat- und neusyrischen
Literatur (Berlin 1976). This covers literature in both Classical
293
Select Bibliography
and Modern Syriac up to the present day; coverage of Classical
Syriac is from c.l4th century onwards, the period neglected in
other histories of Syriac literature. The book is in fact based on
three important histories of Syriac literature by scholars from Syria
(E.Barsaum, 2nd edn.1956), Iraq (A.Abouna, 1970) and Iran
(P.Sarmas. 1969-70).
A great deal of information on particular authors can be
found in the three volumes of A.Voobus' History of Asceticism
in the Syrian Orient (CSCOSubs.14, 17, 81 (1958, 1960, 1988).
(b) Monographs on some individual Syriac
authors (In alphabetical order)
BARDAISAN: HJ.W.Drijvers, Bardaisan of Edessa (Assen
1965).
EARLY WRITERS: R.Murray, Symbols of Church and
Kingdom: a study in early Syriac tradition (Cambridge 1975);
S J.Beggiani, Early Syriac Theology (Lanham 1979).
EPHREM: S.RBrock, The Luminous Eye: the Spiritual
"World Vision of St Ephrem (Rome 1985; Kalamazoo 1992);
T.Bou Mansour, La pensee symbolique de saint Ephrem
(Kaslik 1988).
JACOB of SERUGH: T.Bou Mansour, La theologie de
Jacques de Saroug, I (Kaslik 1993).
JOHN SABA (JOHN of DALYATHA): R.Beulay,
L'enseignement spirituel de Jean de Dalyatha (Paris 1990).
PHILOXENUS: A. de Halleux, Philoxene de Mabboug. Sa
vie, ses ecrits, sa theologie (Louvain 1963).
TIMOTHY I: R.Bidawid, Les Lettres du patriarche
nestorien Timothee I (Studi e Testi 187, 1956).
294
(c) Specific topics
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
(1) Early History of Syriac Churches
The following are the main works available in English (in
chronological order)
W.Wigram, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian
Church (London 1910). Covers up till the end of the Sasanian
period; this remains a very helpful introduction.
W.A.Wigram, The Separation of the Monophysites
(London 1923). A very detailed account, based on Syriac
sources, concerning the Syrian Orthodox Church in the sixth
century.
W.H.C.Frend, The Rise of the Monophysite Movement
(Cambridge 1972). Developments in Church History in the
Eastern Roman Empire from the mid 5th century to the Arab
invasions; primarily based on Greek sources.
W.G.Young, Patriarch, Shah and Caliph (Rawalpindi
1974). A very helpful account of the history of the Church of
the East up to and including the early Abbasid period.
J.Spencer Trimingham, Christianity among the Arabs in
Pre-Islamic Times (London 1979). This frequently touches
on Syriac Church history.
W.S.McCullough, A Short History of Syriac Christianity
to the Rise of Islam (Chico 1982). Special attention is paid to
the Church in the Persian Empire.
S.H.Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, I, to 1500
(San Francisco 1992). Gives extensive coverage to the Syriac
Churches.
J.C.England, The Hidden History of Christianity in Asia
295
Select Bibliography
before 1500 (Delhi/Hong Kong 1996. A helpful introduction
for the general reader.
In French and German, the following works are
important:
J.Labourt, Le christianisme dans r empire perse (Paris 1904)
This remains the fullest account.
P.Kawerau, Die jakobitische Kirche im Zeitalter der
synschen Renaissance (Berlin 1960). Deals with 12th-13th
centuries.
W.Hage, Die syrisch-jakobitische Kirche in fruhislamischen
Zeit (Wiesbaden 1966).
J-M.Fiey, Jalons pour une histoire de l'eglise en Iraq
(CSCO Subs.36; 1970). Covers the Sasanian period and
supplements Labourt.
, Chretiens syriaques sous les Mongols (CSCO Subs.44.
1975).
" , Chretiens syriaques sous les Abbasides (CSCO Subs
59, 1980).
(2) Topography
E.Honigmann, Eveques et eveches monophysites au Vie
siecle (CSCO Subs.2, 1951).
/rpm " ' Le couvent de Barsauma et le patriarcat Jacobite
(CSCO Subs.7, 1954),
J.B.Segal, Edessa, the Blessed City (Oxford 1971).
J-M.Fiey, Assyrie chretienne I-III (Beirut 1965-8).
" , Nisibe,metropolesyriaqueorientale(CSCOSubs.54, 1977).
" , Communautes syriaques en Iran et Iraq des origines
296
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
a 1552 (London 1979).
(3) Spirituality
S. Abouzayd, Ihidayuta: a study of the life of singleness in
the Syrian Orient (Oxford, 1993).
S.Beggiani, Early Syriac Theology (Lanham 1983).
" , Introduction to Eastern Christian Spirituality: the
Syriac Tradition (Toronto/London 199 1).
R.Beulay, La lumiere sans forme. Introduction a 1' etude
de la mystique chretienne syro-orientale (Chevetogne 1987).
G.Blum, Mysticism in the Syriac Tradition (SEERI
Correspondence Course, 7).
S.P.Brock, The Holy Spirit in the Syrian Baptismal
Tradition (Syrian Churches Series 9, 1979).
" , The Syrian Fathers on Prayer and the Spiritual Life
(Kalamazoo 1987). Contains a collection of translations, with
brief introductions .
, Studies in Syriac Spirituality (Syrian Churches Series
13, 1988). Collection of articles reprinted mainly from Sobornost/
Eastern Churches Review.
" , Spirituality in the Syriac Tradition (Moran Etho Series,
2; 1989).
S.Griffith, 'Asceticism in the Church of Syria', in
V.L.Wimbush and R.Valentasis (eds), Asceticism (1995), 220-48.
A. Guillaumont, Aux origines du monachisme Chretien
(Spiritualite Orientale 30, 1979).
" and LH.Dalmais, v Syriaque (spiritualite) * in Dictionnaire
de Spiritualite 14 (1990), 1429- 50.
297
Select Bibliography \
A.Thottakara (ed.), East Syrian Spirituality (Bangalore
1990).
AVoobus, History of Asceticism in the Syrian Orient, I-
III (see under (a)).
(4) Hagiography
The standard reference work is RPeeters, Bibliotheca
HagiographicaOrientalis(Bruxelles 1914); an updated revision
of the Syriac entries in this is in preperation by C.Detienne, to be
published under the title Bibliotheca Hagiographica Syriaca.
Another work, of a less technical nature, is also to appear shortly:
IM.Fiey, Les saints syriaques (Princeton). Entries on several
Syriac saints can be found in Bibliotheca Sanctorum I-XIH (Rome
1961-70).
A number of English translations of Lives of Syriac saints
are available, notably:
S.P.Brock and S.A.Harvey, Holy Women of the Syrian
Orient (Berkeley 1987).
E.W.Brooks, John of Ephesus, Lives of the Eastern Saints
PO 17-19 (1923-4).
E.A.W.Budge, The Histories of Rabban Hormizd and
Rabban Bar Tdta (London 1902).
F.C.Burkitt, Euphemia and the Goth (London 1913).
R.Doran, The Lives of Symeon Stylites (Kalamazoo 1992).
(d) Series of texts; main relevant periodicals and
encyclopaedias
Series of texts and monograph series
Although they never formed a specific series, mention
298
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
should be made at the outset of the numerous volumes of Syriac
texts published (at Leipzig, between 1888 and 1910) by the
Chaldean priest, Father Paul Bedjan (1838-1920).
- Patrologia Syriaca (PS); only three volumes ever
appeared (1897, 1907, 1927). The vocalized serto texts are
accompanied by a Latin translation, and a full index of words is
provided for each text.
- Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium (CSCO),
Scriptores Syri (Paris/Louvain/Leuven); the series began in 1903,
and by now well over 200 volumes of Syriac texts and translations
have appeared. The texts are ail printed in estrangelo; the
translations are in separate volumes; earlier ones were in Latin,
but more recent ones are in the main modern European languages.
- Patrologia Orientalis (PO). This series also began in 1903,
and many fascicles are devoted to Syriac texts . The script used
is serto, and the text is accompanied on the same page by a
translation (Latin in earlier volumes, mainly French in later
volumes).
- Woodbrooke Studies, I- VII (1927-1934). These are
publications by A.Mingana of Syriac (and a few Arabic) texts
found in manuscripts in the Mingana Collection, Selly Oak
Colleges, Birmingham, England. English translations are always
included.
- Gottinger Orientforschungen, Reihe Syriaca (GOFS).
Many volumes in this series, begun 1971, are publications of
Syriac texts, most of which are accompanied by a German
translation.
- Barhebraeus Verlag (Monastery of StEphrem, Holland).
A large number of Syriac texts, literary as well as liturgical, have
been published by the Syrian Orthodox monastery of St Ephrem
299
Select Bibliography
in Glane/Losser, in eastern Holland.
- Moran Etho series (Kottayam; 1988-). These are
primarily monographs, though two volumes contain editions of text.
Among other monograph series which sometimes have
contents of Syriac concern are: Orientalia Christiana Analecta
(Rome); Oriental Institute of Religious Studies India (Kottayam);
Periodicals
Very few periodicals are specifically devoted to Syriac
studies, but several frequently have articles of relevance. Those
which are primarily, or largely, concerned with Syriac studies are:
-L' Orient Syrien (Paris; 12 vols., 1956-67). Many useful
articles, some introductory, some more specialized, are to be
found in these volumes, edited by Mgr G.Khouri-Sarkis. An
index to the complete series is to be found in the Memorial to
G.Khoun-Sarkis (Louvain, 1969).
- Melto (Kaslik; 1-5; 1965-9) and Parole de 1' Orient
(Kaslik;!-; 1970 -). Initially designed as a successor to V Orient
Syrien, Melto and its successor Parole de 1' Orient include many
important publications of Syriac texts, as well as studies. More
recent volumes also cover Christian Arabic studies. An index to
vols 1- is to be found in
- Journal (Bulletin) of the Syriac Section (Corporation) of
the Iraqi Academy (Baghdad; 1-1975-); the majority of articles
are in Arabic.
- The Harp: A Review of Syriac and Oriental Studies
(Kottayam; 1- ; 1987-). Papers from the series of international Syriac
conferences organised by SEERI are also published in The Harp.
Periodicals whose coverage is much wider, but which often
include articles relevant to Syriac literature, are: Analecta
300
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Bollandiana (1882- ), dealing with hagiography; Le Museon
(1882- ) with index for 1882-1931 in vol.44; index for 1932-
1973 by G.Lafontaine (1975); Revue de 1' Orient Chretien
(1896-1946), with indexes at the end of every ten volumes;
Oriens Christianus (1901-), with index for 1901-1986 by
H.Kaufhold (1989); Orientalia Christiana Periodica (1935- ),
with index for 1960-1984 in vol.52 (1986); Aram (1989-).
Encyclopaedias
The only encyclopaedia devoted solely to Syriac studies is
in Arabic (with Syriac title Hudra d-seprayuta suryayta), of which
only the first volume, covering part of alif, has appeared (Baghdad
1990); much of relevance can be found in the Encyclopedie
Maronite, of which again only one volume (covering A) has so
far appeared (Kaslik 1992). The following more general
encyclopedias and dictionaries often have good articles on Syriac
authors: in English, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, in two
volumes (Cambridge 1992); E.A.Livingstone, Oxford Dictionary
of the Christian Church, in a single volume (3rd edn, 1997);
Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (Oxford, forthcoming);
Encyclopaedia Iranica (6 volumes to date, A-D; in French,
Dictionnaire de Spiritualite (1932-1995, 17 volumes),
Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Geographie Ecclesiastique (1912-
, 26 volumes to date, reaching only the letter I !); and in German:
Kleines Worterbuch des christlichen Orients (1975), with a French
translation (Turnhout 1991); Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirche
(2nd edn. 1993- ); 5 volumes to date, reaching K (Syriac authors
are rather well represented); Marienlexikon (1988-1994), in 6
volumes; Theologische Realenzyklopadie (1976- ); 26 volumes
to date, reaching P.
301
Select Bibliography
(e) Collected volumes
Since 1972 there have been Syriac Conferences every four
years; the proceedings have been published in Orientalia
Christiana Analecta (OCA) as follows:
[I] Symposium Syriacum 1972 (ed. I. Ortiz deUrbina;
OCA 197, 1974);
II Symposium Syriacum 1976 (ed. F.Graff in and
A.Guillaumont; OCA 205, 1978);
IE Symposium Syriacum 1980 (edRLavenant; OCA22 1,1983);
IV Symposium Syriacum 1984 (ed. HJ.W.Drijvers,
R.Lavenant and others; OCA 229 (1987);
V Symposium Syriacum 1988 (ed. R. Lavenant; OCA 236,
1990);
VI Symposium Syriacum 1992 (ed. R.Lavenant; OCA 247,
1994).
The following contain contributions wholly or largely
concerned with Syriac studies (in chronological order):
Gottinger Arbeitkreis fur syrische Kirchengeschichte (eds),
Paul de Lagarde und die syrische Kirchengeschichte (Gottingen
1968).
A.Dietrich (ed), Synkretismus im syrisch-persischen
Kulturgebiet (Gottingen 1975).
N.Garsoian, R.Thomson, T.Mathews (eds), East of
Byzantium: Syria and Armenia in the Formative Period
(Washington DC 1982).
M.Schmidt (ed.), Typus, Symbol, Allegorie be den
ostlichen Vatem und ihren Parallelen im Mittelalter (Regensburg
1982).
302
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Collected articles, Festschriften and Memorial volumes (in
alphabetical order)
(J.Assfalg), Lingua Restituta Orientalis: Festgabe fur
J.Assfalg (ed. R.Schulz and M.Gorg; Wiesbaden 1990).
SP.Brock, Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity (London 1984);
" , Studies in Syriac Christianity (Aldershot 1992)
( " ), A Festschrift for Sebastian Brock (ed.S. Abouzayd)
= Aram 5 (1993).
Ade Halleux, Patrologie et ecumenisme. Recueil d' etudes
(Louvainl990).
HJ.W.Drijvers, East of Antioch (London 1984).
" , History and Religion in Late Antique Syria (Aldershot
1994).
J-M.Fiey, Communautes syriaques en Iran et Iraq des
origines a 1552 (London 1979).
( " ), In Memoriam Jean Maurice Fiey o.p. 1914-1995 =
Annales du Departement des Lettres Arabes, Universite Saint
Joseph, 6-B (1991-2 [1996]).
(F.Graffin), Melanges offerts an R.P.Francois Graffin =
Parole de V Orient 6/7 (1978).
(A.Guillaumont), Melanges Antoine Guillaumont:
Contributions a 1' etude des christianismes orientaux (Geneva 1988).
(W.Hage), Syrische Christentum weltweit. Studien zur
syrischen Kirchengeschichte. Festschrift W.Hage (ed.
M.Tamcke, W.Schwaigert,E.Schlarb; Minister 1995).
(G. Khouri-Sarkis), Memorial Mgr G.Khouri-Sarkis (ed.
F.Graffin; Louvain 1969).
303
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(A. Van Roey), After Chalcedon: Studies in Theology and
Church History (ed.C.Laga, J.A.Munitiz, L. Van Rompay;
Orientalia Lovaniensa Analecta 1 8, 1985).
(A.Voobus), A Tribute to Arthur Voobus (ed. R Fischer-
Chicago 1977).
(W.Strothmann), Erkenntnisse und Meinungen II (ed.
G.Wiessner; GOFS 17, 1978).
(f) History of Syrioc studies
An overview of Syriac studies in Europe is given by
S.P.Brock, 'The development of Syriac studies', in K.Cathcart
(ed.), The Edward Hincks Bicentenary Lectures (Dublin 1994),
94- 1 1 3. For surveys of Syriac studies in recent decades, see
S.P.Brock, 'Syriac studies in the last three decades: some
reflections', VI Symposium Syriacum (OCA 247, 1994), 13-
29, and A. de Halleux, 'Vingt ans d'etude critique des Eglises
syriaques', in R.Taft (ed.), The Christian East: its Institutions
and Thought (OCA 251, 1996), 145-79.
(g) Bibliography
Almost complete coverage of western publications on
Syriac literature can be found in two books: (1) for publications
of texts and studies up to c.1960: C.Moss, Catalogue of Syriac
Books and Related Literature in the British Museum (London
1962); this is arranged alphabetically by author (ancient and
modern); and (2) for publications for the period 1960-1990,
S.P.Brock, Syriac Studies: a Classified Bibliography (1960-1990)
(Kaslik 1996); this is arranged alphabetically by Syriac author
and subject, with an index of names of modern authors. (The
latter work was originally published in four parts, in Parole de
r Orient 4 (1973) [for 1960-70], 10 (1980/1) [for 1971-80], 14
304
Brief outline of Syr Lit
TV^ 198W985 ]' and 17 (1992) [lor 1986-90])' A
de ro r nenI)° graPhy ' t0 ^ 199W995 * forthcol ™g (in Parole
(h) Syriac manuscript collections
An invaluable guide to Syriac manuscript collections is
provided by ADesreumaux and F.Briquel-Chatonnet, Repertoire
des bibbotheques etdes catalogues de manuscrtts syriaques (Pans
991). For illustrated manuscripts there is a standard work by
J.Leroy, Les manuscrits syriaques apeintures (2 vols, Pais, 1964)
Almost all surviving Syriac manuscripts which are older
than about the 1 1th century derive ultimately from the Syrian
monastery in the Nitrtan Desert, m Egypt, where they were
collected by the early tenth-century abbot, Moses of Nisibis- a
few of these manuscripts still remain in the monastery (now Coptic
Orthodox) the majority having been acquired by either the
Vatican Library m the 18th century, or the British Museum in
the 19th century. (TTre oldest dated Syriac manuscript was written
m Edessa in November AD 41 1). For Syriac manuscripts m
India see J.PM.van der Ploeg, The Christians of St Thomas in
South India and their Syriac Manuscripts (Bangalore 1983).
(i) Grammars and Dictionaries
Introductory Grammars
Several are available in English, notably:
T.H.Robinson, Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac
Grammar (4th edn, Oxford 1968); this covers the basic
grammar reasonably well, but the exercises are very dull Serto
script is used.
J.Healey, First Studies in Syriac (Sheffield 1980)- this
otherwise helpful introduction (with good exercises) rather
305
Select Bibliography
gives out when it comes to the weak verbs. There is a
selection of annotated texts at the end. The serto Syriac text is
handwritten.
T.Muraoka, Classical Syriac for Hebraists (Wiesbaden
1987). This will be especially useful for those who come to
Syriac with some knowledge of Hebrew. It contains exercises
and uses the serto script. A revised edition is to appear shortly.
W.M.Thackston, Introduction to Syriac: An elementary
grammar with readings in Syriac (Harvard University, Dept. of
Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, 1992). This excellent
work has not been published, but xerox copies can be obtained
from he relevant Department at Harvard University. The Syriac
is unvocalized, but transcriptions are given as well.
In other languages, mention might be made of A.Ungnad,
SyrischeGrammatik (Munich 1913; reprinted Hildesheim 1992);
L.Palacios, Grammatica Syriaca (Rome 1954); and J~B.Frey,
Petite grammaire syriaque (Fribourg 1984). Many introductions
have been produced within the Syriac Churches for the purpose
of teaching children (and others) Syriac as a liturgical and/or as
a spoken language, e.g. Abrohom Nouro, Suloko, I (St Ephrem
Monastery, Holland, 1989); A.El-Khoury, Companion (Beirut
1972).
Reference Grammars
The standard reference grammars are:
R.Duval, Traite de grammaire syriaque (Paris 1881).
Th.Noldeke (tr. J.A.Crichton) Compendious Syriac
Grammar (London 1904); a reprint (Darmstadt 1966) of the
German second edition (1898) contains some supplements, and
contains an index of passages quoted.
306
Brief outline of Syr. Lit,
Two useful grammars of an intermediary size are:
C.Brockelmann, Syrische Grammatik (Leipzig 1899, with
_ many subsequent editions); this contains a good selection
of texts, for which a separate Syriac-English glossary was
provided by M.H.Goshen-Gottstein (Wiesbaden 1970).
L.Costaz, Grammaire syriaque (2nd edn., Beirut 1964).
Dictionaries
The two most practical dictionaries for ordinary use are:
J.Payne Smith (Mrs Margoliouth), A Compendious Syriac
Dictionary (Oxford 1903, with many reprints). This is
arranged alphabetically, rather than by Syriac (trilitteral)
root, and so is much more convenient for the less experienced
reader of Syriac. It is especially helpful for phrases and
idioms.
L.Costaz, Dictionnaire syro-francais-arabe-anglais (Beirut
1963, repr. 1986). This handy Syriac-French- Arabic-
English dictionary is arranged by root and covers all but the most-
specialized vocabulary.
A Concise Syriac-English, English-Syriac Dictionary,
compiled by G.Kiraz and S.P.Brock, is in the course of
preparation; the arrangement will be alphabetic.
None of the above give any references to passages in Syriac
writers (sometimes a matter of importance and interest); for
these one needs to consult two more extensive dictionaries:
C.Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum (2nd edn., Halle 1928).
Syriac -Latin, arranged by root. This only gives a small
number of phrases and idioms, but is especially good for
references to rarer words. The first edition (1895) has a Latin-
Syriac index, but in the second edition page numbers only are
307
Select Bibliography
given for the Syriac, and so one has to look up the entry each
time.
R.Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus, 2 volumes (Oxford
1879, 1901). Syriac-Latin, arranged by root. This
magnificent work (and exceptionally fine piece of printing) gives
ample quotations of phrases and idioms (many of which are taken
over in his daughter's Compendious Syriac Dictionary, but
without the references).
A Supplement to the Thesaurus of R.Payne Smith was
published by J.Payne Smith (Oxford, 1927), where the entries
(Syriac-English) are arranged alphabetically, rather than by root.
This is based on texts published subsequent to the Thesaurus.
In view of the many further new texts that have been published
since the date of these dictionaries, a further supplement is very
much a desideratum, but it would be a formidable task to
undertake. There is also a valuable Syriac- Syriac dictionary by
T. Audo, Dictionnaire de la langue chaldeenne (Mosul 1 897, repr.
StEphrem Monastery 1985).
308
INDEX of AUTHORS to SECTION III
(Numbers refer to listing in sub-sections A-D; an asterisk *
indicates that an excerpt is translated in Section VII)
Abdisho'barBrika 96*
Abraham bar Lipeh 52
Abraham of Nathpar 38
Abraham b ar Dashandad 6 8
Afram, Gabriel F
Afaikar 10*
Ahudemmeh 37*
Aksenoyo (Philoxenos) 22*
Alexander the Great, verse homily on 49
Anonymous chronicles 25*,33,36*,53,69*, 93*
Anonymous commentaries 63, 81
Anonymous literature 5th cent. 17*, 18*; 6th cent 39*; 7th
cent. 49, 53, 59*
Anton of Tagrit 77*
Aphrahat 11*
Babai of Nisibis (see 43)
Babai the Great 43*
Balai 15
Bar 'Ebroy o/Bar Hebraeus 95 *
Bardaisan 4*
Barhabdbeshabba'Arbaya 40
B arhadbeshabba of Halwan 4 1
Barsaum, Ephrem F
Basil Ishaq Gobeyr E
Basileios Shem'un of Tur 'Abdin E
Behnam, Paulos F
Book of Steps 13*
Causa Cans arum 84*
Cave of Treasures 39*
Cyrillona 14
309
Index of Authors
Cyrus of Edessa 31*
Dadisho' 57*
Daniel of Salah 30*
David the Phoenician E
'Diyarbekir Commentary' 63
Dionysius bar Salibi 87*
Dioscorus of Gozarto 98
Dolabani, Philoxenus Yuhanon F
Elia 65
Elias 29
Elijah of Anbar 83*
Elijah III Abu Halim 88
Elijah of Nisibis 86
Elyas, GhattaMaqdasi F
Emmanuel bar Shahhare 85
Ephrem 12*
Fa'yeq, Na'um F
Gabriel, Paulos F
Gabriel of Qatar 51
George (pseudo-) of Arbela 78*
George bishop of the Arabs 62*
Giwargis Warda 92
Gregory of Cyprus 48
Hagiography 18*, 29, 34*, 39, 44*, 49, 60, 80*, 89*
lohannanbarZo'bi 90
lohannan - see John
Isaac of Antioch 23*
Isaac of Nineveh 55*
Isaiah of Beth Sbirina E
Ishaq Sbadnaya E
Isho'barnun 72*
Isho'dad ofMerv 75*
Isho'dnah 80*
Isho'yahbll 45
310
Brief outline of Syr. Lit.
Isho'yahbUI 54*
Jacob Severus bar Shakko 94*
Jacob of Seragh 20*
Jacob of Edessa 61*
Job of Edessa 73*
Johnof theSedre 46
John of Ephesus 34*
John Saba 66*
John the Solitary (John of Apaniea) 16*
John bar Penkaye 58
John of Daly atha 66*
JohnofDara 74*
Joseph II E
Joseph Hazzaya 67*
'Joshua the Stylite', Chronicle 25*
Kliamis bar Qardahe 97
Khuzistan Chronicle 53
Liber Graduum 13*
Mara, Letter of 9
Martyrius/Sahdona 44*
MarathaofTagrit 47
Mas'ud E
Melito the Philosopher 7
Menander, Sentences of 8
Methodius, pseudo- (Apocalypse of) 59*
Michael the Great 89*
Moshe bar Kepha 82*
Narsai 19*
Nonnus of Nisibis 76
Nuh E
Peter of Kallinikos 35
Philoxenos 22*
Philoxenos Yuhanon Dolabani F
Rabban Sauma, History of 99*
311
r
Index of Authors
Rahmani Eplirem F
Sahdona/Martyrius 44*
SargisbarWahle E
Sergius the Stylite 64
SergiusofResh'aina 27*
Severus Sebokht 50*
Shem' on the Graceful (d-Taybutheh) 56
Shem'un of Beth Arsham 28
Shubhalmai-an 42
Simeon the Potter 21
Solomon, Odes of 5*
Solomon of Bosra 91*
Stephen bar Sudhaili 26
Symmachus 24
T'omaAudo F
Theodore bar Koni 70*
ThomasofEdessa 32
Thomas of Marga 79*
Thomas, Acts of 6*
Timothy I 71*
Timothy II 100
Yeshu' of Beth Sbirina E
Zacharias Rhetor (Pseudo-) 36*
Zuqnin Chronicle 69*
312
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